Disorders of Vision

Disorders of vision affect various parts of the eye. Some disorders are the result of aging, a genetic tendency, or both. Such disorders include glaucoma (increased fluid pressure within the eye), cataract (clouding of the lens), and various retinal problems. New techniques and medications for detecting and treating glaucoma and cataract have made these two leading causes of blindness very treatable. Today's modern surgical procedures make the treatment of cataracts among the most successful of all operations. Cataract is a major cause of vision loss worldwide. Almost 20 million people are blind because of this condition. A cataract is a clouding of the normally clear lens of the eye. The clouding of the lens blocks the passage of light needed for sigh. Although a cataract often starts in only one eye, usually both become involved. Cataracts are accompanied by changes in the chemical composition of the lens, but the cause of these alterations is unknown. The signs of cataract are blurred vision, impaired vision at night or in very bright light, and halos around lights. A certain amount of lens clouding occurs in 65% of patient over the age of 50 and 95% of patients over the age of 65. The most effective treatment for cataract is surgical removal.

Urinary System:

The main function of the urinary system is removal of excess fluid and waste material from the blood. The urinary system consists of two kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters, and urethra. The kidneys are located against the back of the abdominal wall. Each kidney is generally about the size of the person's fist. Kidneys are the most important organs for fluid excretion. Ureters are muscular tubes. They propel the urine to the bladder. The bladder is a muscular bag that stores the urine. The urethra is the narrow tube through which the urine leaves the bladder during urination.

Kidneys Disorders:

There are many forms of kidneys diseases. Glomerulonephritis results from inflammation of the filtration membrane within the renal corpuscle. It is characterized by an increased permeability of the filtration membrane. The signs and symptoms of glomerulonephritis are the following: tea-colored urine, hypertension, fluid retention, headaches, and generalized aches and pains. Pyelonephritis is inflammation of the renal pelvis, medulla, and cortex. It often begins as a bacterial infection of the renal pelvis. Then it extends into the kidney itself. Pyelonephritis may cause the destruction of nephrons and renal corpuscles. The ability of the kidney to concentrate urine is dramatically affected. As a rule the person has flank pain, high fever, vomiting, and burning sensation during urination. When properly treated, acute pyelonephritis rarely progresses to chronic renal disease. Renal failure may result from any condition that interferes with kidney function. Acute renal failure occurs when damage to the kidney leads to the accumulation of the urea in the blood. In renal failure death may occur in 1 to 2 weeks. Acute renal failure may result from acute glomerulonephritis. In some cases it may be caused by damage to or blockage of renal tubules. Circulatory shock caused by sympathetic vasoconstriction of the renal blood vessels can cause necrosis of the epithelial cells of the nephron.

Pregnancy:

Pregnancy is the term used to describe when a woman has a growing fetus inside of her. Human pregnancy lasts about 40 weeks, or just more than 9 months. Pregnancy is typically divided into three periods, or trimesters, each of about three months. The first 3 months of fetal development are the most important. During this time, all the major organs in the body are formed. The eyes and heart have begun to form. At the end of the sixth week the brain becomes more noticeable, and arm and leg buds begin to appear. By the seventh week, the chest and abdomen are fully formed and the lungs are beginning to develop. During the second trimester the fetus grows and the organs formed during the previous weeks mature. At 13 weeks the fetus can kick and move its toes. The mouth can open and close. The fetus is capable of bending its arms and a fist. Fine hair covers the entire body. The first eyelashes and eyebrows begin to appear. During the third trimester the infant’s eyes are open. Most of the body hair is gone, although the shoulders and arms may still have a light covering.

Child’s Development:

The stages of life are as following: the germinal period; the embryo; the fetus; neonate; infant; child; adolescent; and adult. A great number of changes occur in the life of the newborn until 1 year of age. The brain is still developing at this time. By 6 weeks the infant is usually able to hold up its head and begins to smile in response to people. At 3 months of age the infant’s limbs are exercised aimlessly. The infant can follow a moving person with eyes. At 4 months the infant begins to do push-ups. It can begin to grasp things placed in its hand, roll from its back to its side, hold its head erect, and play with its hands. At 5 months the infant can usually laugh out loud, reach for objects, turn its head to follow an object, lift its head and shoulders, sit with support, and roll over. At 8 months the infant can recognize familiar people, sit up without support, and reach for specific objects. At 12 months the infant may pull itself to a standing position and may be able to walk without support. The infant can understand much of what is said to it and may say several words of its own.

Female Reproductive System:

As in the male, female reproduction is under the control of hormonal and nervous regulation. Development of the female reproductive organs and normal function depend on the relative levels of a number of hormones in the body. The female reproductive system consists of ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, external genital organs, and mammary glands. The female reproductive system produces ova and provides a place for the embryo growth. There are two fallopian tubes (also called uterine tubes) one on each side of the uterus. Each of these tubes contains a passageway no wider than a needle. The fallopian tubes transport the oocyte or zygote (the fertilized oocyte) from the ovary to the uterus. Two ovaries are small organs approximately 2 to 3.5 cm long and 1 to 1.5 cm wide. They are located in pelvic cavity. Between puberty and menopause, the ovaries generally release one egg each month. They also produce the female sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone). The union of the male and female sex cells in humans takes place within the female body. Fertilization is the process of penetrating the secondary oocyte by the spermatozoon. It is completed with the fusion of the male and female pronuclei. If fertilization takes place, the new cell formed begins a nine-month period of development within the uterus.

Male Reproductive System:

The main function of the male reproductive system is producing sperm cells and transporting them to the female reproductive system. The male reproductive system consists of the testes (or testicles), epididymides, ductus deferentia, urethra, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, scrotum, and penis. Sperm cells are very temperature sensitive and do not develop normally at usual body temperatures. The testes and epididymides are located outside the body cavity where the temperature is low. The testes are contained in a pouch of skin, called the scrotum. In each testis there is a tightly packed mass of coiled tubes surrounded by a protective capsule. At puberty the testes begin to produce the sperm cells (spermatozoa) that are used in reproduction. This process continues throughout life. In addition to producing sperm cells the testes secrete the male hormone testerone, which plays an important role in the development and maintenance of the typical masculine physical characteristics, such as facial hair, greater muscle mass and strength, and a deeper voice. The sperm cells are constantly being produced within each testis. They are transported through the epididymides and the ductus deferentia and then stored in the seminal vesicles.

Infertility:

Infertility is a common problem in partners. Fortunately, major advances have been made in recent decades, and the problem of infertility can be solved in many cases. Problems of infertility can include problems with the sperm, problems with egg, or difficulties encountered in their union. Abnormal function of the fallopian tube or uterus, infections, and immunologic and other factors may also cause infertility. Infertility problems also can result from sexual dysfunction.

To physicians, the term infertility usually means the inability to become pregnant after 1 year of frequent sexual intercourse without using any contraception.

Ten to 15 percent of couples are infertile. Of these couples, the man is the infertile partner in about 30 percent of cases and contributes to the infertility problem in an additional 20 percent of cases; the woman is infertile 50-70 percent of the time. In both men and women, various factors can account for infertility. Forty percent of infertile couples have more than one cause of their infertility. Thus, the physician will begin a comprehensive infertility examination of both partners.

Практичні завдання:

1. Вміти перекладати медичні терміни модуля 2 англійською та українською мовами.

2. Вміти читати та перекладати англомовний текст українською мовою.

3. Вміти давати відповіді на запитання до тем модуля 2.

7. Рекомендована література.

1. Бердический А.Л. Оптимизация системы обучения иностранному языку. - М.: Высшая школа. – 1989. - 101 с.

2. Фоломкина С.К. Обучение чтению на иностранном языке в неязыковом вузе. - М.: Высшая школа. – 1987. - 206 с.

3. Єнікеєва А.Б., Корнейко І.В. – Англійська мова для медиків. – Харків, ХДМУ, 2000 – 64 с.

4. Ogarkova A. Modern Medical Potential. – Київ: КНУ ім. Т.Шевченка. – 2004. – 111 с.

5. Ritchel В. Tests in English. – WsiP, 2002. – 345 p.

6. Dorland’s Ilusrated Medical Dictionary. – W.B. Saunders Company, 1994. – 1338 p.

Методична рекомендація складена к. філол. н., доц. Знаменською І.В.

Дата добавления: 2015-11-26