Заключний етап.

Оцінювання діяльності кожного студента упродовж підсумкового модульного заняття, проведення стандартизованого контролю успішності студента. Виставлення оцінок та балів у журнал обліку відвідувань і успішності студентів.

6. Додатки. Засоби для контролю:

Орієнтовне викладання матеріалу з тем, що вивчалися:

Immune System

The immune system is one of the most important systems in the human body. The major parts of immune system are the thymus, spleen, lymph system, bone marrow, white blood cells, antibodies, and hormones. They work together to clear infection from the body. Human body has many mechanisms that defend the person against infectious organisms. The skin and gastrointestinal tract are the first lines of defense. The human organism has a specific capacity of resistance against infection called immunity. Agents that can invade the human body live everywhere. The majority of these organisms do not produce disease, but some do. The basic types of organisms that cause infectious disease are bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and helminths. Possible help for the immune system is a healthy diet, with lots of natural sources of vitamins A, C and E, zinc, iron, and vitamin B₆.

AIDS

AIDS is an immune deficient state caused by human immunodeficiency virus. HIV is transmitted by transfer of body fluids containing the virus. The major methods of transmission are sexual contact, the using of infected needles, and blood products. Once infected with HIV, most people have no symptoms and no indication that they are infected. However infected persons are able to transmit the virus to others. The signs and symptoms of AIDS are the following: fatigue, night sweats, chill or fever lasting for several weeks, weight loss, swelling of lymph nodes and others. AIDS can lead to pneumonia, skin cancer, meningitis, encephalitis, myelitis, progressive form of dementia and others. There are three main types of medications for HIV and AIDS. They are antiviral drugs, immune system boosters, and medications for prevention or treatment of opportunistic infections. But the effectiveness of standard treatments is limited by the state of immunodeficiency.

Endocrine System:

The endocrine system consists of cells, tissues, and organs that produce hormones or other chemical substances. The organs of endocrine system act together to control body activities and maintain homeostasis. There are two types of glands. They are endocrine glands and exocrine glands. Endocrine glands are pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads and others. They secrete hormones into the body fluids. Exocrine glands are mammary, salivary, lacrimal, and sweat glands. They secrete chemical substances into ducts, which lead to external body surfaces. Hormone is organic substance, which acts in the metabolic processes and has an effect on the functions of another cells. The endocrine system functions as a control system for the human body.

Hormonal Disorders:

Pituitary gland disorders. Growth hormone (GH) stimulates growth in most tissues. Several pathological conditions are associated with abnormal GH secretion. They are hypersecretion and hyposecretion. The causes for hypersecretion or hyposecretion involve tumors in the hypothalamus or the pituitary, the synthesis of structurally abnormal GH, the inability of the liver to produce somatomedins and others. Chronic hyposecretion of GH in infants and children leads to dwarfism. Treatment for chronic hypersecretion of GH often involves surgical removal or irradiation of a GH-producing tumor. The most common thyroid disorders are hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Hyperthyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland produces excessive amounts of thyroid hormone. The signs of this disorder are the following: weight loss despite increased appetite, increased heart rate and blood pressure, nervousness, swelling at the base of the neck and others. Three types of treatment are available: a liquid form of radioactive iodine, an antithyroid medication, and surgery. An underactive thyroid gland causes hypothyroidism. The key treatment is daily consumption of thyroid hormone.

Diabetes Mellitus:

Diabetes mellitus occurs as a result of inadequate secretion of insulin. There are two types of diabetes mellitus: insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus is also known as type I; and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus is known as type II. Viral infection and heredity play definite role in diabetes onset. The symptoms of diabetes mellitus are increased thirst, increased urination, weight loss, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, skin infections, and bladder infections. Diabetes mellitus often is treated by administration of insulin by injection. In some cases diabetes mellitus can be treated by administering drugs that stimulate beta cells to secrete more insulin.

Allergy:

The aim of the immune system is to mobilize its forces at the site of invasion and destroy the enemy. One of the ways it does this is to create protective proteins called antibodies. These antibodies, or immunoglobulins (IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD), help to destroy a foreign particle by attaching to its surface, thereby making it easier for other immune cells to destroy it. The allergic person however, develops a specific type of antibody called immunoglobulin E, or IgE, in response to certain normally harmless foreign substances. To summarize, immunoglobulins are a group of protein molecules that act as antibodies. There are 5 different types: IgA, IgM, IgG, IgD, and IgE. IgE is the allergy antibody. Most people are susceptible to skin allergies or reactions at some time during their lives. The most common such sensitivity is to plants such as poison ivy or poison oak. In susceptible individuals, contact with one of these plants produces an itchy, blistering rash. Another type of allergy causes swelling of tissues beneath the skin or in the throat for no apparent reason. All of these discomforts are caused by histamines and other chemicals released into the skin or under the lining of the throat or bronchial passages as a result of allergic response. The common skin allergies are dermatitis, hives, and angioedema.

Nervous System:

The nervous system is the information center and control system. The basic unit is the neuron. A neuron consists of a cell body, axon, and dendrites. A neuron receives chemical signals from other neurons through the synapses. All signals are combined as an electrical signal within the neuron. It sends an outgoing chemical signal to another synapses. The nervous system is divided into central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The meninges surround and protect the brain and spinal cord. They are dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater. CNS processes information and integrates mental processes. The peripheral nervous system is divided into two parts: a cranial part and spinal part. PNS is composed of afferent and efferent neurons. The peripheral nervous system collects information from numerous sources and relays it to the central nervous system.

Brain:

The brain is that part of the CNS located within the cranial vault. The major regions of the brain are the cerebrum, the thalamus and hypothalamus, midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum. The brain is responsible for control of coordination, learning, memory, emotion, and thought. The brain is connected to the spinal cord by the brain stem. Brain stem is composed of the medulla, the pons, and midbrain. The brain stem controls breathing and circulation of blood. Cranial nerves exit from the brain stem to control muscles of the face, eyes, tongue, ears, and throat. Control of the muscles of the right side of the body is in the left hemisphere of the brain, and muscles of the left side of the body are controlled by the right hemisphere of the brain. The linking of higher brain functions with cerebral areas is a very active field of research.

Disorders of Nervous System:

Seizure is a sudden attack often including convulsions. The seizure ends with a few minutes of deep, relaxed sleep. The causes for seizures can include scar tissue from brain disease or injury; brain infection, tumor, abscess, or hemorrhage; metabolic disturbances from kidney or liver disease. Medication greatly reduces seizures for more than 75 percent of affected persons. Regular and adequate rest is important. There are many degenerative disorders, some of them are Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's disease, and Multiple sclerosis. Alzheimer's disease is due to a degeneration of brain cells. Among the possible causes are genetic factors, toxic exposures, abnormal protein production, viruses, and neurochemical abnormalities. The symptoms of Alzheimer's disease are gradual loss of memory, inability to learn new information, increasing irritability, and depression. No effective treatment exists. Some medications modify the symptoms of the disease. Parkinson's disease is progressive degeneration of nerve cells in the part of the brain that controls muscle movements. The signs and symptoms of Parkinson's disease are shaking at rest, rigidity of limbs, slow, monotone voice, and difficulty in maintaining balance. The cause of this disease remains unknown. The main goal of treatment is to reverse the problems with walking, movement, and tremors.

Eye:

The eyes are unique instruments. Thousands of times a day, the eyes move and focus on images near and far. The eye consists of conjunctiva, sclera, cornea, lens, retina, iris, pupil, anterior chamber (aqueous humor), canal of Schlemn, posterior chamber (vitreous humor), fovea (focal point), choroids, and optic nerve. The conjunctiva runs along the inside of the eyelid. It contains tiny blood vessels. The cornea refracts light as it enters the eye. The pupil is the opening through which light passes to the back of the eye. The anterior chamber is filled with aqueous humor. This fluid is manufactured in the posterior chamber of the eye. Behind the iris and anterior chamber the lens is. The lens can change shape in order to focus light rays on the retina. The bulk of the eyeball is formed by the posterior chamber. It is filled with a colorless substance known as the vitreous humor. The retina is located behind the vitreous chamber. It processes the light images. Fovea located in the center of the retina provides the most acute vision. The optic nerve takes the electrical impulses and transmits them to the brain. The optic nerve interprets these messages into what we perceive as sight.

Ear:

Ears are the organs of hearing. The ear has tree parts: outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear. The outer ear consists of the auricle and outer ear canal. Within the outer ear wax-producing glands and hairs are located. The function of the middle ear is to deliver sound to the inner ear. The middle ear is a small cavity, which contains the eardrum. Within the middle ear there are small bones. These bones conduct sound vibrations into the inner ear. The middle ear is connected by the Eustachian tube to the throat. The inner ear contains the most important parts of the hearing mechanism. They are the vestibular labyrinth and the cochlea. When sound waves from the world outside strike the eardrum, it vibrates. These vibrations from the eardrum pass through the bones of the middle ear and into the inner ear. Then they disseminate into the cochlea, where they are converted into electrical impulses and are transmitted to the brain.

Skin:

The skin is a unique organ. It contains many specialized nerve endings for sensing heat, cold, and pain. In addition, skin contains numerous oil glands, hair follicles, and sweat glands. The skin protects the internal organs and serves as heat regulator. Capillaries and blood vessels in the skin dilate or constrict according to the body's temperature. The skin is composed of the epidermis, the dermis, and the subcutaneous tissue. The epidermis is the top layer. The outermost surface of the epidermis is made up of dead skin cells. Squamous cells lie just below the outer surface. Basal cells are at the bottom of the epidermis. The dermis, found beneath the epidermis, makes up 90 percent of the bulk of the skin. It is a dense layer of strong, white fibers and yellow, elastic fibers. This layer includes blood vessels, muscle cells, nerve fibers, lymph channels, hair follicles, and glands. The dermis gives strength and elasticity to the skin. Beneath the dermis the subcutaneous tissue lies. It is composed largely of fat through which blood vessels and nerves run.

Дата добавления: 2015-11-26