Flight to Mars

Solar Power

The total amount of solar energy reaching the Earth's surface for a week, exceeds that of all the world's oil, gas, coal and uranium. Solar heat can save in different ways.Current technologies include parabolic concentrators, solar parabolic mirrors and solar energy Towers. They can be combined with the settings, fossil fuels are burned, and in some cases to adapt to heat accumulation. The main advantage of such hybridization and teploakkumulyatsii - is that such technology can provide dispatch of electricity (ieelectricity generation can be done during periods when it is needed). Hybridization andaccumulation of heat may increase the economic value of electricity produced and reduce its average cost.

Solar troughs
In these plants use parabolic mirrors (trays), which concentrate sunlight onto receiver tubes containing liquid-coolant. This fluid is heated to nearly 400 C and pumped through a series of heat exchangers, with superheated steam is produced, setting in motion the usual turbo to produce electricity. To reduce heat loss up the reception may surround a transparent glass tube, placed along the focal line of the cylinder. Typically, these settings include uniaxial or biaxial tracking system for the Sun. In rare cases, they are stationary.
Built in the 80s in the southern California desert by "Luz International", nine of these systems constitute the largest to date, manufacturer of solar thermal electricity. These plants supply electricity to the utility power grid of Southern California. Even in 1984, "Luz International" has established a Deggette (Southern California) solar power generating system "Solar Electric Generating System I" (or SEGS I) capacity of 13.8 MW. In the receiver tubes oil is heated to a temperature of 343 º C and produce steam to generate electricity. The design of "SEGS I" included 6:00 of accumulation of heat. It uses a natural gas furnace that was used in the absence of solar radiation. The same company also built a similar plant "SEGS II - VII" with a capacity of 30 MW. In 1990, Harper Lake were built "SEGS VIII and IX", each with capacity of 80 MW.
Evaluation of the technology show it more expensive than solar power tower and Dish (see below), mainly due to lower concentration of solar radiation and, therefore, lower temperatures and, consequently, effectiveness. However, given the accumulation of operating experience, improved technology and lower operating costs troughs may be the least expensive and most reliable technology, the immediate future.

Solar Installation Dish
This type of solar battery is a parabolic dish-shaped mirrors (similar shape to a satellite dish) to focus solar energy onto a receiver located at the focal point of each dish. Fluid in the receiver is heated to 1,000 degrees and directly used for production of electricity in a small engine and generator, connected to the receiver.
Currently in development are Stirling engines and Brighton. Several prototype systems with a capacity of 7 to 25 kW have been deployed in the United States. The high optical efficiency and low initial cost make dish / engine systems the most efficient of all solar technologies. System of the Stirling engine and a parabolic mirror holds the world record conversion efficiency of solar energy into electricity. In 1984, Rancho Mirage, California managed to achieve a practical efficiency of 29%.
In addition, thanks to modular design, these systems represent the best option to meet the electricity needs for autonomous consumers (in the kilowatt range), and for the hybrid (in MW), connected to mains utilities.
This technology has been successfully implemented in a number of projects. One of them - the project STEP (Solar Total Energy Project) in the U.S. state of Georgia. It is a large system of parabolic mirrors that worked in 1982-1989 years. in Shenandoah. It consisted of 114 mirrors, each 7 meters in diameter. The system produced high-pressure steam to generate electricity, steam, medium pressure for knitwear, as well as low-pressure steam for air conditioning systems on the same knitting factory.
Joint use of parabolic mirrors and Stirling engines and other interested companies.Thus, the firm "Stirling Technology", "Stirling Thermal Motors" and "Detroit Diesel" corporation in conjunction with "Science Applications International Corporation" formed a joint venture with a capital of $ 36 million to develop a 25-kilowatt system on the basis of the Stirling engine.

Solar power tower to the central receiver
These systems use a rotating field of reflectors, heliostats. They focus sunlight onto a central receiver, built on top of the tower, which absorbs heat energy and drives a turbine generator. A computer-controlled biaxial tracking heliostats sets so that the reflected rays of the sun were stationary and always fell on the receiver. The circulating fluid in the receiver transfers heat to the heat accumulator in the form of steam. The steam turns a turbine to generate electricity or used directly in industrial processes.Temperatures reach the receiver from 538 to 1482 C.
The first tower power plant, called "Solar One" near Barstow (Southern California) has successfully demonstrated the application of this technology for producing electricity.The company operates in the mid-1980s. He used the water-steam system with capacity of 10 MWe. In 1992, a consortium of energy companies in the U.S. decided to upgrade the "Solar One" to show the receiver on molten salts and heat storage system.Thanks to the thermal storage tower power plants have a unique solar technology that allows the dispatching of electricity in load factor to 65%. In this system, molten salt is pumped from a "cold" tank at 288 C and passes through the receiver where it is heated to 565 C, and then returned to the "hot" tank. Now the hot salt as needed, you can use to generate electricity. In modern models of such systems is kept warm for 3 - 13 hours.
"Solar Two" - tower power plant of 10 MW in California - a prototype of large industrial plants. She first gave the electricity in April 1996 that marked the beginning of the 3-year period of testing, evaluation and experimental demonstration of power generation for molten-salt technology. Solar heat is stored in molten salt at 550 C, so the station can produce electricity day and night, rain or shine. Successful completion of the project "Solar Two" should contribute to the construction of such towers on commercial basis within a capacity of 30 to 200 MW.
Comparison of performance
The towers and hubs parabolotsilindricheskie best work in the large, grid-connected power plants of 30-200 MW, while the Dish systems consist of modules and can be used as a stand-alone units or in groups with a total capacity of several megawatts.Parabolotsilindricheskie installation - on today's most advanced technology of solar energy and they are likely to be used in the short term. Tower power plant, due to its effective heat storage capacity can also be solar power for the near future. The modular nature of the "cymbal" allows you to use them in small installations. Tower and the "plates" can achieve higher conversion efficiency values ​​of solar energy into electricity at a lower cost than parabolic concentrators. However, it remains unclear whether these technologies to achieve the required reduction of capital costs. Troughs at the present time - already proven technology, awaiting his chance at perfection. Tower power stations need to demonstrate effectiveness and operational reliability of the technology of molten salts using low-cost heliostats. Systems for Dish to create at least one commercial engine and the development of inexpensive hub.

Flight to Mars

The dream of a manned mission to the planet Mars has a long history, but today we got to the possibility of its performance is very close. In many ways, interest in Mars has been associated with the expectation of a meeting of brothers in mind. Although count on finding intelligent beings on Mars is not necessary, some form of life there, you can probably find it. But the value of manned flight to Mars goes far beyond the search for life beyond Earth. It is important that Mars - the only planet promising in terms of its colonization. It is believed that Mars should not send a crew and automatic stations, which can replace the human researcher. Despite this, work on the flight are conducted, and the Institute of Biomedical Problems begin an experiment to model the flight. About the upcoming Mars mission said Leonid A. Gorshkov, chief researcher of RSC "Energia", doctor of technical sciences, professor, laureate of State Prize of, member of the Academy of Astronautics. One of the supervisors on the Martian program at RSC "Energia". Directly involved in the design and development of "Soyuz" stations "Salute", "World" and the Russian segment of International Space Station (ISS). During 1994-1998, LA Gorshkov was deputy director of the International Space Station from the Russian side.

Looks like a manned flight to Mars

A flight from Earth orbit to orbit Mars will take 2-2.5 years. The ship in which all this time to live and work crew, has a mass of 500 tons, and fuel it needs hundreds of tonnes.That magnitude of the task features a manned flight to Mars from flying relatively small unmanned. The total mass of all manned becomes much more than they can be put into orbit, even the most powerful launch vehicle. Therefore, to create a giant rocket to launch from Earth, only the interplanetary complex does not make sense. Simply send it into orbit in parts of the parts and assemble complex there, using already spent in orbit assembly technology.

The flight will occur as follows. A few months assemble complex, and interplanetary expedition on a heliocentric orbit will fly around Mars. Since all of the spaceship down on Mars is impractical in the complex will take off and landing module. After the release of an interplanetary expedition set on a circular orbit around Mars in it or a part of the crew will land on the planet's surface. After finishing work on the surface of the astronauts back to the ship. Interplanetary expedition starts with a complex okolomarsianskoy orbit the Earth and released into orbit, which launched to Mars. On the ship returning crew will descend to Earth.

Thus, the interplanetary expeditionary complex consists of four main functional parts: the vessel, which runs the crew and placed all the basic equipment; interplanetary tugs, which provides for interplanetary flight trajectory, the landing ship of the complex and return to Earth.

The main problem of the organization of human flight to Mars - to ensure a high probability of safe return of the crew. The level of safety of the crew must comply with Russian standards, that is, the Martian expedition should be no more dangerous than, for example, a flight to the space station. Comply with this requirement is extremely difficult. One of the principal technical solutions to the complex interplanetary was the choice of the tug, in essence - a large rocket engines with multiple inclusion.

Today's most reliable rocket that displays a man into space, is a booster "Union", worked well all the long history of human spaceflight. But even she, though rarely fails. In that case, a system for emergency rescue, when the failure of the rocket propellant engines taken away from the lander crew from the rocket and astronauts land on the Earth's surface. This system of salvation already had to use in the operation of space stations.

Rocket "Soyuz" will gather on Earth and experience with multiple specialists, including a group of quality control work, and an interplanetary rocket and gather experience in orbit. And she should have a much higher reliability than the "Union" because it is impossible to create a system of emergency rescue crews in case of failure in the process of entering the heliocentric orbit. Therefore, to ensure adequate security of the crew needs a fundamentally new technical solutions in the choice of the interplanetary tugs.

Work on the concept of manned flight to Mars have been conducted since 1960 (see "Science and Life" № 6, 1994). The first domestic draft vessel for landing of man on Mars was made in the OKB-1, led by Sergei Pavlovich Korolev. Now it's Rocket and Space Corporation "Energia" Korolev. The draft was adopted in 1960 fundamentally new technical solution: use for interplanetary expeditions electric propulsion (see "Science and Life" № 9, 1999). This decision RKK "Energy" has remained unchanged for all subsequent modifications to the project of manned flight to Mars, and that it is possible to largely solve the problem of security.

The principle of electric propulsion is that the jet stream, which provides traction, is not created due to thermal expansion of gas in liquid rocket engines (LRE), and with the acceleration of the ionized gas in an electromagnetic field produced by the onboard power plant. Fuel, or rather the "working body" will be the gas xenon.

As the power supply of electric motors, in 1960, intended to use a nuclear reactor with capacity of 7 MW. Portions of the vessel expected to deliver to orbit a heavy launch vehicle (at this time has just begun work on a rocket H-1). The crew planned a six-man.After landing on the Martian surface equipment would be collected in the form of "train", which was to cross the planet from its one pole to the other.

In 1969, this project has been redesigned. Reactor power is increased to 15 MW. To improve the reliability of the propulsion system instead of one reactor planned three.During the processing of the project had died, "appetite": The number of landers with five reduced to one crew member was four. As the rocket decided to use a modification of the new heavy rocket H-1 (see "Science and Life" № № 4, 5, 1994).

In 1988, due to great progress in the creation of thin-film photovoltaic devices and progress in the development of transformable truss structures reactor was replaced by solar panels. One of the reasons this decision was the desire to make interplanetary expeditionary complex clean. The main advantage of this solution was the possibility of making multiple copies of the propulsion system. For the delivery of parts ship into Earth orbit was planned to use the new launcher "Energia".

The elements of the expeditionary complex and state of development

The first element of the international complex - the ship, which runs the crew. It is called interplanetary Orbiter. Orbital - because its main function is associated with the work on the orbits of interplanetary flight. The creation of this vessel in a relatively short period of time is quite real. In their tasks, he, in fact, - an analogue of the Russian module "Zvezda" of the International Space Station, only slightly larger in size. The fact that the space station, the required equipment can be transported on the ship "Progress" in two or three months, and a Mars expedition this is not possible there will be two to two and a half years. So anything that might need during the flight, including during emergency situations, you need to bring and place on the ship.

The basic system of the spaceship has worked on space stations "Salyut" and "Peace."Therefore, for its construction plan to use ready-made documentation of the many design elements, and most importantly - the factory tooling and technology available at factory - the case of module "Zvezda" (Works Center. Khrunichev).

The second element of an interplanetary expedition of the complex - the sun lift, which provides for interplanetary flight trajectory. It consists of two packages of electric motor control systems, tanks, working medium and large panels with film solar photoconverters power the engines.

Sunny lift also includes a lot of already established units, structures and systems. Of electric motors are widely used in space technology, and for a flight to Mars takes only a few improve their performance. Film solar Photoconverters manufactured in Russia for land use. And to test the stability in space conditions the samples were placed on the outer surface of the station "Mir". Convertible design, which should be placed Photoconverters also practiced during the flights of space stations. In a sunny tow supposed to base the design of the farm, "Sophora" installed at the station "Mir". To compound had no backlash, used the so-called "shape memory effect", ie the ability of some materials after heating to take the shape and size as at the relevant details to a specially performed deformation.

The third element of the interplanetary complex - a complex of runways, which makes part of the crew landed on the Martian surface and returned to the ship. Takeoff and landing complex in contrast to the previous items - a completely new development. His counterparts in the Russian programs did not exist. However, similar problems were solved in the Russian space program, and no serious problems for its establishment is not visible.

And finally, the fourth element of the complex - the ship back to Earth. He has a real prototype - the ship "probe" which developed in the Soviet Union to fly around the Moon with the man entering the atmosphere from the second cosmic speed. "Zond-4" - "Zond-7" flew in 1968-1969 with the animals in the cockpit. However, from manned the ships later abandoned.

What is the feature of the project RKK "Energy"? Why he seems quite real? First of all, because of the choice of propulsion of interplanetary flight. Electric rocket engines have a relatively low thrust, but a high speed jet, which significantly reduces the necessary supplies of fuel for interplanetary missions. But the main thing is that, unlike all the other engines they allow for multiple backups. What do you mean?

The interplanetary complex with an initial mass of about 1,000 tons to about 400 electric propulsion thrust of about 80 gauss (0.8 N) each. All these engines or engine group operate independently of each other, each group has its own section of the tank with the working fluid, its managing its section of solar panels. And even refusal of several groups of engines will not affect the interplanetary flight. Such a propulsion system is practically immune to failure. It's something like that flocks of geese that used to take Baron Munchausen on the moon: each goose on the road had a right to be tired and go the distance without harm to the entire flight.

The total thrust of all engines is 32 kg, or 320 N. In the open space vehicle weighing about 1000 tons of this force acquires an acceleration 32x10-5 m/s2. Acceleration of this miserable enough to prolonged use of engines required to collect interplanetary flight speed. Time of the spacecraft along a spiral trajectory around the Earth is about three months. On this trajectory engines do not work continuously, they are turned off when the sun shade the Earth. After moving the ship a heliocentric orbit and engines will continue.

Russia has already come a long way to organize the first manned mission to Mars. On orbital stations "Salyut" and "Peace" reviewed many of the elements of the future interplanetary complex, a lot of work to test the systems and technologies to ensure long-term human space flight. No other country has accumulated such experience.

Currently, the Institute of Biomedical Problems, prepares an experiment with "500 days" to study the medical aspects of a future manned mission to Mars. The basis of the complex layout of the Martian construction is used, established in 1960 at the initiative of SP Korolev RSC Energia, which has conducted research on the program, working off of interplanetary flights.

The name of the experiment due to the fact that, although the flight to Mars is 700-900 days, depending on the year of the expedition, the first pilot "flight" on the earth will last for 500 days. The first ground crew "flight" of six people, and it will be international, from representatives of different countries.

It seems that the Americans had not yet decided finally to the concept of manned flight to Mars. But judging by publications, presentations at international conferences, they tend to use nuclear engines. The Russian experts do not share this approach for many reasons. First, the testing of such engines in the world related to the expiration of a powerful radio-jet. Despite the fact that there are technical ways to protect it from the earth's atmosphere, stands castings such engines still represent a threat to the surrounding area. But the most important thing is that the nuclear engines such unattainable levels of reliability, which can be achieved by using multiple redundant electric propulsion. In addition, the use of an interplanetary trip to cleaner engines can make a reusable spaceship. Reusability is very attractive when it is not a single flight, and of Mars exploration program.

Stage of landing on the Martian surface the most critical in terms of crew safety. Unlike solar and interplanetary tugs orbiter landing complex is much less likely to use a back-up kits: the processes are fast, and connect the redundant equipment is not always possible. Therefore, the main factor in ensuring the reliability required takeoff and landing complex is its careful working out, including the unmanned Mars in real terms.No one will dare to send man to Mars before landing complex fails to make a landing and taking off from a planet in an automatic mode. Therefore, the first human flight to Mars will be no landing of the crew on its surface.

With the first flights to Mars crew will remain on okolomarsianskoy orbit to the surface after only remotely controlled automatic machine. Should pay special attention to this phase of Mars exploration by man. In essence, the surface of the "down" hands and eyes of the astronaut. In this flight, mix well and safety of the crew, and making full use the experience and intuition of planetary scientists, who will conduct research on board the interplanetary orbiter. It turns out a complete virtual human presence on the actual surface of Mars. On Earth this is impossible because of the large distance and delay the signal a few tens of minutes.

It is hard to find a difference in terms of performance, whether the person is present on the surface physically or virtually. Is it just does not stay on the bottom trace shoes sole astronaut. When the virtual astronaut landing on Mars is not watching through the window space suit, and a very sophisticated video resources. Does not work for gloved hands suit, but with more delicate instruments. Given that one goal of missions to Mars - preparations for its colonization, the flight crew with a virtual trip will be only the first step in this process.

Thus, the Russian project of manned flight to Mars has very important features. First, the technical solutions incorporated into the project, and a large backlog make the flight to Mars the cheapest of all known variants of the expeditions, and secondly, the safety of the crew on this flight is very high.

Why fly to Mars?

And here is appropriate to ask: Do I need a general flight to Mars? On the one hand, it would seem clear: a manned flight to Mars is expensive. Some more or less obvious benefits for the earthlings he promises. And in the earth there are many problems to solve which require funds. Even just providing food for the world's population is a higher priority than putting a man on Mars.

But, thankfully, although world population lives at all times was not favorable, mankind has never been guided by obvious at first glance, the principle of "immediate benefit".That is why today we do not sit in animal skins around the fire near the cave. The study area of ​​their own "home" of the oceans to outer space, and has always been one of the elements of civilization.

But is there some kind of pragmatic motivation for flying to Mars? The first obvious task of the expedition - the study of our neighboring planet. Mars exploration will help to significantly predict the development of the Earth, progress in understanding the origin of life and much more. They are on a par with the study of stars, galaxies and the universe around us, the penetration into the essence of matter, studying the structure of the microworld, the structure of atomic nuclei... All this is a direct benefit in the near future promises.

We all live on one planet, and she was prone to global hazards that can destroy all mankind. For example, a collision with an asteroid large enough mass will certainly mean the end of the history of Homo sapiens. Even the inhabitants of the Earth represent a danger to themselves. "Eggs should not be in one basket" and the organization of settlements on other planets in the Solar Systems, and the first on Mars, is a way out of this situation. Although the probability of global catastrophe is low, the price that humanity is able to pay for carelessness, a maximum of everything you can imagine. The process of development of planets long, but it is unwise to delay its onset, given the price. It would seem that it is a pragmatic goal. Nevertheless, many believe the likelihood of global catastrophe is too low to accept the program of development of planets is well founded Noah for the work on a manned flight to Mars. But keep in mind that the totality of interests of members of society have never in the interests of society as a whole.

The important question about the motivation of the work on the Martian program in Russia. Is there any practical problems that Russia decides to hand in organizing manned flights to Mars? It turns out there.

Despite the fact that the dynamics of the Russian economy is positive, it has a very weak spot - the resource orientation (production and export of hydrocarbons, metals, etc.), this has been repeatedly drawn the attention of the President of the Russian Federation. Restore the industry in Russia after the crisis of the 1990s has not yet succeeded. What kind of industry should be restored first? Perhaps one that uses advanced technologies in demand in the global market. And aerospace technology are just such. On many of them our country has an absolute priority.

Recovery industry has a social aspect. In the creation of orbital stations "Salyut", "Peace", the Russian segment of International Space Station, for example, was attended by thousands of enterprises operating in various regions and cities. To create a space-needs not only of purely "space" of production. Require different tools and machines, materials, and much more. And this is all jobs for professionals who use advanced technology that is always very important for any country.

We have become accustomed to the concept of "brain drain". The brain drain goes, but like anything terrible happens. In fact, it only seems that way. The process where the most valuable staff leave Russia is dangerous for a country that threatens its very existence. Scientists do not leave the country because abroad they get more money, but above all because in our country there is no program in which they would find good use.Russian air as needed major research programs. In particular, the program of manned flight to Mars, scientists will be needed the most diverse disciplines - biologists, doctors, materials scientists, physicists, computer programmers, chemists, and many others.

You can have different attitudes to the concept of prestige. But the authority of the state - a concept including economic. Recall how the increased authority of the U.S. after the program "Apollo." Manned flight to Mars, no matter what the skeptics on the subject, always worried and will excite mankind. The realization of this dream of many generations of extremely prestigious. So the project of manned flight to Mars in Russia is of particular importance.

Now about the situation of international cooperation in organizing manned flights to Mars. Very often you can hear that the flight is only possible in a broad international cooperation. Indeed, the development of Mars - a long process and it will at some stage involved nearly all countries, with relevant technology mi. In the program of flights to Mars will be in demand a variety of ships, bases, research facilities and construction. National programs in various countries will solve individual problems Mars exploration. And each country will be their part of the path to this program.

While there are different states, inevitably the existence of national programs. Every country is interested in the development of its advanced technology based on personal experience and development. Especially if these technologies are in demand in the global market. Therefore, in the space program will always be side by side, and international and national programs.

Today, the U.S. manned flight to Mars, announced the national program. The Americans, in principle, could be invited to participate in it and other countries, but for their own means. But the own funds should be spent with maximum benefit for themselves. It is hardly advisable to do for their money some elements of the U.S. program. More profitable to develop key technologies for manned flight to Mars, which will develop national programs in the future. For example, a reusable solar tugs, which became one of the elements of the Russian concept flying to Mars, will solve many other problems facing humanity. The fact that the effective space tugs in the future will largely determine the space policy, as once the launchers. In other words, Russia should have its own program of development, not serve the interests of others. This does not in any way interfere with cooperation. System created in Russia, will be important to provide more opportunities, including the American flights. And co-operation with various countries to create the individual elements of expeditions, of course, will be.

Cooperation with the U.S. in the first manned mission to Mars is a purely technical aspects. We respect the expertise of American engineers. But the Americans adopted the concept can not we arrange it. A number of American programs that are technically acceptable to the Russian experts, including from the viewpoint of ensuring safety of the crew.

Assume that the Americans want to make some grandiose project like the Martian core of "Freedom" * and although this is unlikely to offer Russia to participate in this project on a parity basis. So what do we do? Participate? Or nearly the same money to develop a project based on Russian technology, cheaper, less ambitious and, we hope, more productive. It appears that the second way is natural: the intellectual capacity and experience in the development of space programs, especially related to long flights of man, the Russian experts, in any case not less than Americans.

Work on the Mars mission in the U.S. and Russia will not be a "Martian race." Each country will develop its core technologies to develop their advanced industry and science. For example, for a very efficient organization of a manned flight to Mars orbit with a virtual trip of the crew on the Martian surface Russia already has a huge technical and technological groundwork. And it is very important to use it in a large scientific-technical program.

Thus, Russia has everything for manned flight to Mars: the necessary intellectual potential, unique work experience in manned programs, workable industrial cooperation, the need for investment in high technology industry with advanced technologies. There is every reason to expect that in the decades old dream of earthlings on the flight to Mars finally be realized!

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