Glossary of basic and complex structures

The structures compiled here are based on research at the Eurocontrol Institute of Air Navigation Services, Luxembourg.

BASIC STRUCTURES:

v Articles

v Adverbs of frequency (Always, Generally, Usually, Often, Sometimes, Seldom, Never, etc).

v Comparison of adjectives

v Discourse markers (Actually, Basically, Anyway, (and) yeah (more and more frequent), Listen, I mean, Let’s see/Let me see, Like, Oh, Now, Okay, So, Well, You know, You see, You know what I mean, It is true, Of course, But, Still, (and) by the way, Besides, Another thing is, On top of that, So, Then, First(ly), Second(ly), etc., First of all, In the first/second place, Finally, In the end, In short)

v Modal verbs (Can, May, Must, Have Got to, Should, Ought to, Would, Could, Might, Needn’t, Don’t have to, Mustn’t)

v Numbers (cardinal and ordinal)

v Passive voice (Simple present, Simple past)

v Position of direct and indirect objects:

Bob sent some flowers to his girlfriend.

Bob sent his girlfriend some flowers.

v Question words for describing people and things and for requesting information (What? Who? Which? Why? Where? How?)

v Relative pronouns (Who, which, whose)

v Tenses

Present simple (I do)

• Present continuous (I am doing)

• Past simple (I did)

• Past continuous (I was doing)

• Present perfect simple (I have done)

• Present perfect continuous (I have been doing)

• Simple future tense (Will)

• Future (Going to)

v There to be (Present, past, future)

COMPLEX STRUCTURES

• Adjectives

• Gradable and ungradable adjectives

• Fairly angry (gradable)

• Totally amazed (ungradable)

• Prepositions after adjectives (Angry about, afraid of, etc.)

• Adjectives + that clause or to + infinitive

• Enough, sufficiently, too + adjective

• The sooner the better, etc.

V Adverbs and conjunctions

• Comment adverbs (apparently, frankly, rightly)

• Viewpoint adverbs (biologically, ideologically, morally)

• Adverbial clauses of time (before, until, after, as soon as, before, when, while, hardly, no sooner, scarcely)

• Giving reasons (seeing that, since, in as much as, due to, owing to, with so many people ill)

V Clauses

• Relative clauses

• Participle clauses (-ing, -ed and being –ed)

• Participle clauses with adverbial meaning (Opening her eyes, the baby began to cry. Formed 25 years ago next month, the aviation club …)

v Conditionals (Real and unreal, all tenses)

v Discourse markers (Mind you, On the whole, Broadly speaking, By and large, Certainly, May, stressed “Do”, On the one hand, On the other hand, While, Whereas, However, Even so, Nonetheless, Nevertheless, All the same, Although, Though, Even though, If, In spite of, Despite, Incidentally, Moreover, Furthermore, In addition, Additionally, (and) what is more, Therefore, As a result, Consequently, (Quite) on the contrary, To begin with, To start with, For one thing, For another thing, In conclusion, Briefly)

V Infinitives and gerunds

V Modals

• Will and would to show willingness, likelihood and certainty

• Will and would to show habits

• Modals + past participle to express criticism or regret

V Nouns

• Compound nouns

• Uncountable nouns with zero article (e.g. good advice)

v Passive voice (Present perfect/past perfect/future/continuous forms in general)

v Phrasal verbs: (They wanted to get the meeting over with. The programme's lack of success could be put down to poor management. Boeing came in for a lot of criticism over their new plan.)

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