Commom Diseases and Ailments

UNIT 1

Exercise 1. Read and translate the text.

Diagnosis

X rays were discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, a German professor of physics, in his laboratory in the University of Wurzburg on Nov. 8, 1895. Early on, in radiodiagnosis, use was made of three of the properties of X rays-their ability to penetrate the tissues, their photographic effect, and their ability to cause certain substances to fluoresce. In penetrating the tissues, the radiation is absorbed differentially, depending on the densities of the tissues being penetrated. The radiation emerging from tissues thus produces on a photographic film or a fluorescent screen an image of the structures of differing densities within the body. The limiting factor in this method of diagnosis is the similarity between the densities of adjacent soft tissues within the body, with a resultant failure to produce a notable contrast between the images of adjacent structures or organs.

During the first two decades following their discovery, X rays were used largely for the diagnosis and control of treatment of fractures and for the localization of foreign bodies, such as bullets, during World War I. The physicians using these methods introduced artificial contrast agents, such as a paste consisting of barium sulfate which is inert and nontoxic when taken by mouth. When a contrast agent is taken by mouth or introduced by enema, the various parts of the alimentary tract can be demonstrated and examined. Refinements of this technique continue to the present day, and radiological examination of the alimentary tract is an elegant and precise aid to diagnosis. Eventually a number of other contrast media were produced that could be injected into blood vessels. The media could thus be used either to demonstrate those vessels (whether arteries or veins) or, after their selective concentration and excretion by the kidneys, to show the urinary tract.

Within the first few months after Roentgen’s discovery, attempts were made to produce films of moving objects; thus, it was soon realized that radiology might be able to depict function and so demonstrate dynamic physiological functions rather than just static anatomy. Technical difficulties and the hazards of a high dose of radiation to the patient prevented the proper development of this technique.

In the 1950s an electronic method was devised to intensify the image, the so-called image intensifier which made possible.the overcoming of the technical difficulties, and cineradiography became routine. During the whole period of the development of radiology, photographic techniques were also continually being improved. Single-coated photographic plates were used at first, and then double-coated photographic films: photographic emulsions have now been developed to such a point that high speed can be provided with good definition and little intrusion of photographic grain into the image. Similarly, processing methods have been improved; automatic processors now can deliver a fully processed dry film in 90 seconds.

A new form of X-ray imaging, computerized axial tomography (CAT scanning), was devised by Godfrey Hounsfield of Great Britain and Allan Cormack of the United States during the 1970s. This method measures the attenuation of X rays entering the body from many different angles. From these measurements a computer reconstructs the organ under study in a series of cross sections or planes. The technique allows soft tissues such as the liver and kidney to be clearly differentiated in the images reconstructed by the computer. This procedure adds enormously to the diagnostic information that can be provided by conventional X rays. CAT scanners are now in use in many large hospitals and medical centres throughout the world.

A still more recently developed technique is nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) scanning (also called magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI), in which radio waves are beamed into an individual who is subjected to a powerful magnetic field. Different atoms in the body absorb radio waves at different frequencies under the influence of the magnetic field. The way in which absorption takes place is measured and used by a computer to construct images of internal structures. Another recent technique is positron emission tomography, or PET scanning, which involves the emission of particles of antimatter by compounds injected into the body being scanned. These particles, positrons, are neutralized by their opposites, electrons, and energy is released in the form of radiation as matter and antimatter annihilate each other. Detectors arranged around the body pick up the energy released and use it to follow the movements of the injected compound and its metabolism.

These relatively new radiological techniques provide much safer means of examining internal body structures. They also yield precise and clear images for the physician and diminish the margin of error in therapeutic measures.

Exercise 2. Give Ukrainian equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

Density, to penetrate the tissues, to be absorbed differentially, planes, antimatter, cineradiography, radio waves, to construct images, localization of foreign body, to depict function, recently developed technique, to demonstrate the vessels, excretion by the kidneys, to be taken by mouth, images reconstructed by the computer, to depend on densities, densities of adjacent soft tissues, overcoming technical difficulties, to inject into blood vessels, therapeutic measures, to yield precise images, processing methods, axial tomography, to diminish the margin of error, positrons, barium sulfate, moving objects, contrast media, intrusion, within the body, image intensifier, to become routine, absorption, attenuation, to annihilate each other, photographic grain, to release in the form of radiation, double-coated photographic film.

Exercise 3. Give English equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

Властивості, спричиняти, залежати від, ущільніть, м’які тканини, вдосконалення, запобігати, вторгнення, мікрокристали, проникати, поглинати, штучний контрастний агент, винаходити, засоби, емульсія, частки, кров’яні судини, зображати, звільняти, різні кути, подібність.

Exercise 4. Answer the following questions:

1. Who discovered X rays?

2. Where and when X rays were discovered by Wilhelm Cohdrad Roentgen?

3. Which three properties of X rays do you know?

4. What does the absorption of radiation depend on?

5. How is the radiation absorbed in penetrating the tissues?

6. What is the limiting factor in this method?

7. What were X rays used for largely during the first two decades?

8. What artificial contrast agents did the physicians introduce?

9. What kind of diagnosis is radiological examination of the alimentary tract?

10. Is radiology able to demonstrate dynamic physiological functions?

11. Why did the cineradiography become routine?

12. What was devised by Godfrey Hounsfield of Great Britain and Alan Cormack of the United during the 1970s.?

13. What advantages do CAT scanners have?

14. How does a nuclear magnetic resonance scanning operate?

15. What does PET scanning involve?

16. What do these new radiological techniques provide for physicians?

Exercise 5. Translate the clusters “adjective + noun” and form plural.

Contrast agent, photographic effect, soft tissue, fluorescent screen, notable contrast, dynamic function, static anatomy, elegant aid, electronic method, physiological function, alimentary tract, proper development, automatic processor, selective concentration, adjacent tissue, different atom, photographic plate, high dose, artificial contrast agent, urinary tract, different frequency, large hospital, nuclear resonance, medical centre, internal structure, magnetic field, good definition, radiological technique, clear image, photographic grain, therapeutic measure, powerful field, precise aid, high speed, contrast medium, different angle, little intrusion, various part, artificial agent, photographic emulsion.

Exercise 6. Form nouns from the following verbs:

To emit, to radiate, to beam, to provide, to demonstrate, to examine, to develop, to prevent, to realize, to refine, to attenuate, to discovery, to produce, to concentrate, to inject, to localize, to absorb, to penetrate, to use, to measure, arrange, to intrude, to depict, to annihilate.

Exercise 7. State parts of speech:

Refinements, technical, hazards, reconstructs, continually, media, proper, automatic, processing, difficulties, emulsions, development, agents, electronic, differentially, consisting, various, selective, allows, demonstrate, concentration, tissues, produces, definition, methods, use.

Exercise 8. Define forms of the following Participle I and Participle II. Make your own sentences using these forms.

Moving, emerging, absorbed, prevented, processing, processed, being, developed, examining, arranged, improved, have been developed, using, beamed, devised, injected, subjected.

Exercise 9. Define tense of the following forms in the Passive:

Was devised, be provided, were being improved, were made, have been improved, are beamed, be injected, is measured, were discovered, is taken, are being penetrated, was realized, is absorbed, are neutralized.

Exercise 10. Match the following word combinations from the text, make your own sentences with them.

to depict	into blood vessels
to demonstrate	differentially
to inject	fluorescence
to introduce	the tissues
to produce	with good definitions
to cause	Function
to absorb	the images
to penetrate	Dynamic physiological functions
to provide	in the form of
to reconstruct	Artificial contrast agents
to release	a notable contrast
to arrange	the margin of error
to beam	the urinary tract
to yield	around the body
to diminish	a fully processed dry film
to demonstrate	clear images
to show	into individual
to deliver	the vessels

Exercise 11. Fill the gaps with a proper form of verb in Passive.

1. In the 1950s an electronic method ______________ to intensify the image. (to devise)

2. X rays ________ largely for the diagnosis and control of treatment of fractures and for the localization of foreign bodies, such as bullets, during World War I. (to use)

3. Energy __________ in the form of radiation. (to release)

4. When a contrast agent _____________ by mouth or introduced by enema, the various parts of the alimentary tract can be demonstrated and examined. (to take)

5. PET scans of the brain ______________ to evaluate patients who have memory disorders of an undetermined cause. (to use)

6. A computerized axial tomography scan ______________ by obtaining axial x-rays images using computerized reconstruction. (to perform)

7. The positrons ________________ by their opposites. (to neutralize)

8. Computerized axial tomography (CAT scanning) ________________ by Godfrey Hounsfield of Great Britain and Allan Cormack of the United States during the 1970s. (to devise)

9. These particles _______________ from a radioactive substance given to the patient. (to emit)

10. X rays _________________ by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, a German professor of physics, in his laboratory in the University of Wurzburg on Nov. 8, 1895. (to discover)

11. The images ______________on the monitor of a nearby computer. (to display)

12. A radioactive substance _______________ in a machine called a cyclotron. (to produce)

Exercise 12. Put all possible special questions to the following sentences:

1. The CAT Scan machine was invented by Hounsfield

2. The CAT Scan is basically an x-ray tube that rotates in a circle around the patient making many pictures as it rotates.

3. The multiple x-ray pictures are reconstructed by a computer in axial slice images sort of like the way a loaf of bread is sliced.

4. Each slice of bread can be examined separately.

5. The CAT Scan machine looks like a large DONUT standing up (called the gantry) on its side with a table going though the center of it.

6. The patient lies on the table as the table is moved slowly into the Scanner gantry (Donut).

7. The Gantry houses the rotating x-ray tube and x-ray receptors.

8. The original scanners in 1978 took 2 minutes per slice and had very rough images.

9. The new scanners today can do a series of 30 images in a few seconds and have much sharper images.

10. For Abdominal CAT Scans, the patient is given a cup of dilute barium or Gastrograffin the night before and also 1 hour before the Scan to delineate the small and large bowel.

11. The Scan may be done twice: before and after intravenous iodinated contrast.

12. The iodinated contrast enhanced the vascular structures and improved interpretation of the CAT Scan images.

13. The iodinated contrast is usually injected with a motor driven power injector.

14. The extravasations from the vein cause irritation in the skin.

15. There is also a risk of allergy to the iodinated contrast material resulting in hives, itching, wheezing, and shock.

16. The pretreatment with Benadryl and Predisone usually eliminates reaction in allergic patients.

Exercise 13. Open brackets and use the correct tense and Voice.

1. Computerized axial tomography (CAT scanning) __________ cross-sectional images with the use of x-rays. (to create)

2. As beams of x-ray photons ________ through a transaxial plane of the body from different angles. (to pass)

3. Exiting photons _____________ by detectors and channeled into a computer. (to record)

4. The computer ____________ cross-sectional views of the body at different planes. (to produce)

5. CAT scanning of the head _____________ to study the anatomic structures of the skull and brain. (to perform)

6. Radiological techniques ____________ much safer means of examining internal body structures. (to provide)

7. These particles are neutralized by their opposites. (to neutralize)

8. Automatic processors now __________a fully processed dry film in 90 seconds. (to deliver)

9. Different atoms in the body ______________ radio waves at different frequencies under the influence of the magnetic field. (to absorb)

10. A computer _______________ the organ under study in a series of cross sections or planes. (to reconstruct)

11. A positive electron __________ about one to two millimeters before colliding with an electron. (to travel)

Exercise 14. Read the text, entitle it, translate the text in a written form, put ten special questions.

A computerized axial tomography scan is performed by obtaining axial x-rays images using computerized reconstruction. Patients are usually given an oral contrast liquid by mouth to aid in imaging the alimentary tract. A CAT scan is helpful in delineating solid renal, retroperitoneal or pelvic masses in children. It can detect lymphatic, liver and lung metastases. CAT scans can be enhanced by using intravenous iodinated contrast material. This allows one to detect perfusion and concentration of the contrast by the kidney.

A CAT scan is an invasive test. It requires placement of an intravenous line. It also exposes a child to a significant amount of radiation. It is rarely the first exam to obtain. The majority of abdominal masses in children are from the urinary tract and most of these are cystic (hydronephrosis).

An ultrasound is, therefore, a better initial exam in a child with an abdominal mass. Although significant renal function is required to concentrate and excrete the contrast material, CAT scans are relatively sensitive in detecting and comparing renal function between two kidneys. Many young children require sedation to undergo a CAT scan.

Exercise 15. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Рентгенівські промені були відкриті німецьким вченим-фізиком Вільгельмом Рентгеном в 1985 році.

2. Вчені і в наш час продовжують вдосконалювати цей метод дослідження.

3. В 1970 році Годфрей Хаунсфілд винайшов нову форму рентгенівської діагностики – комп’ютеризовану томографі.

4. Під час першої світової війни рентгенівські промени широко використовувались для знаходження сторонніх тіл.

5. Недоліком цього методу діагностування була схожість щільностей прилеглих тканин, що призводила до помилок в діагнозі.

6. Для запобігання вторгнення мікрокристалів на зображення органу, постійно розробляються нові фотографічні емульсії.

7. Комп’ютер робить вимірювання поглинання радіохвиль і відтворює точне зображення внутрішніх органів організму людини.

8. Цей метод діагностики дозволяє чітко конструювати зображення за допомогою комп’ютера.

Exercise 16. Consult about the meanings of medicine terms:

Urography, bloodstream, body cavities, lymphatic vessels, urinary tract, spinal cord, myelography, digestive tract, gallbladder, biliary channels, cholecystography, brain scanning, angiocardiography,

Exercise 17. Read and translate the text in a written form.

Diagnostic Imaging

Diagnostic Imaging, also called Medical Imaging, is the use of electromagnetic radiation to produce images of internal structures of the human body for the purpose of accurate diagnosis. Diagnostic imaging is roughly equivalent to radiology, the branch of medicine that uses radiation to diagnose and treat diseases.

X rays, used since 1895, were the first type of radiation to provide images of the interior of the body. X rays pass through bodily tissues and also have the property of darkening photographic film when they strike it. As they penetrate tissues, the X rays are absorbed differentially, with denser objects such as bones absorbing more of the rays and thus preventing them from reaching the film. Soft tissues, on the other hand, absorb fewer rays; the result is that in an X-ray photograph of the interior of the body, bones show up as lighter areas and soft tissues show up as darker ones on the exposed film.

A limiting factor in X rays when used alone is the inability to distinguish between adjacent, differentiated soft tissues of roughly the same density (it is not possible to produce contrasting tones between such objects on the exposed film). To obtain this contrast, a contrast medium -- a liquid or gaseous substance that is comparatively opaque to X rays (radiopaque) or comparatively transparent to them -- is injected into the body. Contrast-medium fluids can be injected into naturally occurring body cavities, injected into the bloodstream and lymphatic vessels, swallowed or introduced by enema for study of the digestive tract, or injected around organs to show their external contour.

Different contrast media thus allow the X ray imaging of particular types of soft internal structures, such as the arteries and veins in angiography, the passage of blood through the heart in angiocardiography, the gallbladder and biliary channels in cholecystography, the spinal cord in myelography. and the urinary tract in urography. Virtually any part of the body can be examined for physiological disturbances of the normal structures by X-ray analysis. X-ray motion-picture films can record the body processes as the contrast media enter and leave parts of the body.

Other imaging techniques have been developed using X rays. In tomography X-ray images of deep internal structures can be obtained by focusing the rays on a specific plane within the body. A more complex variation of this technique is computerized axial tomography, known as a CAT scan.

The scanning of radioactive isotopes that have been injected into the tissues is a medical specialty called nuclear medicine. Both isotope scanning and X-ray photography are used in brain scanning. An imaging technique related to isotope scanning is positron emission tomography. Another type of diagnostic imaging is nuclear magnetic resonance, which creates images of thin slices of the body using very-high-frequency radio waves. Ultrasound is a technique in which high-frequency sound waves are used for detecting abnormalities in internal organs. The varieties of radiation that are used in diagnostic imaging continue to expand, along with the techniques for using them.

Exercise 18. Give Ukrainian equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

soft internal structures, limiting factor, to distinguish between, to obtain the contrast, gaseous substance, to swallow, to absorb differentially, property of darkening photographic film, accurate diagnosis, to treat diseases, to diagnose, to produce images, opaque, disturbances, varieties of radiation, external contour, to detect abnormalities, high-frequency sound waves, specific plane, thin slice, transparent, to create image.

Exercise 19. Answer the following questions:

1. What is Diagnostic Imaging?

2. What is the purpose of Medical Imaging?

3. What was the first type of radiation?

4. What properties do X rays have?

5. Which structures of the human body absorb more X rays?

6. Which structures of the human body absorb fewer X rays?

7. What is a limiting factor of X rays?

8. What ways can contrast-medium fluids be injects into the body?

9. What other imaging techniques do you know?

10. What is computerized axial tomography?

11. What is positron emission tomography?

12. What is nuclear magnetic resonance?

Exercise 20. Open the brackets paying attention to the usage of the Passive Voice.

1. The X rays (to absorb) differentially.

2. Any part of the body (to examine) for physiological disturbances of the normal structures by X-ray analysis.

3. Radioactive isotopes (to inject) into the tissues.

4. X-ray photography (to use) in brain scanning.

5. They (to emit) from the nucleus of some radioisotopes.

6. Contrast-medium fluids (to inject) into naturally occurring body cavities.

7. In tomography X-ray images of deep internal structures (to obtain) by focusing the rays on a specific plane within the body.

8. Each detector (to operate) in multiple coincidence with many detectors across from it.

9. One element (to convert) into another.

10. The varieties of radiation (to use) in diagnostic imaging.

Exercise 21. Complete the sentences.

1. __________ absorb more of the rays.

2. __________ pass through bodily tissues.

3. ___________________ are injected into naturally occurring body.

4. _____________ absorb fewer rays.

5. _______________________ record the body processes as the contrast media enter and leave parts of the body.

6. _________________________allow the X ray imaging of particular types of soft internal structures.

7. ________________________ creates images of thin slices of the body using very-high-frequency radio waves.

8. _______________________are used for detecting abnormalities in internal organs.

9. ___________________________ is a medical specialty called nuclear medicine.

10. ___________________________ are used in brain scanning.

11. ____________________ continues to expand.

Exercise 22. Retell the text “Diagnostic Imaging”.

Exercise 23. Put all possible special questions to the following sentences:

1. The technician waits for the computer to compile the picture.

2. Each scan takes only a few seconds.

3. The dye is filtered out of the bloodstream by the kidneys.

4. A radiologist will examine the pictures from the scan.

5. A CT scan usually involves from 10 to 30 different pictures.

6. The differences in densities appear as different shades of grey similar to a black and white photograph.

7. A patient will be asked to drink two more glasses of the dye just before the procedure.

8. The x-ray tube rotates around your body.

9. CT scans are performed in the radiology department by technicians specially trained to operate CT scanning equipment.

10. The computer measures from each angle the amount of energy absorbed by a patient’s body tissue.

11. The computer converts the analysed information into a picture of the internal organs of the body.

12. An x-ray tube or "camera" is mounted inside a ring surrounding the doughnut hole.

Exercise 24. Read the text and discuss it using questions after the text.

CAT Scan

CAT is the abbreviation for computerized axial tomography. This is an advanced x-ray and computer system that makes detailed pictures of cross-sections of the body.

A CAT scan shows more details than a regular x-ray, and, unlike an x-ray, it can make pictures of areas protected or surrounded by bone. It can show ducts, blood vessels, tumours, or any of the body's organs. A CT scan is 100 times clearer than an ordinary x-ray. As a result, a CAT scan can detect some problems at an earlier stage than x-rays.

Some CAT scanners are part of a larger healthcare complex or may be at a separate facility. Just before the CAT scan, a patient may be asked to change into a hospital gown and remove anything that interferes with x-rays, such as glasses, jewellery, dentures, and hearing aids. A patient will then be asked to lie down on a narrow table and the technician will help a patient slide inside a large, donut-shaped ring.

Frequently, the radiologist (a doctor who specializes in reading x-rays and scans) uses a contrast material (a liquid dye that's given to you to make it easier to see the organ being examined). Sometimes, the contrast material is injected into an IV (intravenous line) and sometimes it is swallowed, depending on the type of exam. If contrast material is used, the doctor will explain the procedure to a patient.

As the scan begins, humming or buzzing or clicking sounds may be heard from the CAT scanner. The table a patient is lying on will move every few seconds, automatically positioning him for a new scan. It is important to remain very still. A patient may be given a sedative medication to help him relax if this is difficult for a patient.

During the scan a patient will be alone in the scanning room. Doctors and technologists will observe him from a control room and communicate with him over an intercom. The procedure may take from 30 minutes to an hour depending on how much of the body needs to be scanned.

After the procedure, the technologist will ask a patient to wait a short time while the images are reviewed to make sure all the needed information has been obtained. Sometimes additional images are needed. After this, a patient is free to go. The results are sent to a patient’s doctor and will be reviewed with a patient.

A patient should always inform the doctor and the technician if she is pregnant or if there is any chance a patient is pregnant. The radiation exposure is minimal and unlikely to cause any side effects for non-pregnant patients.

If contrast material is used, the radiologist will watch for allergic reactions such as nasal stuffiness, itching and hives. If the contrast material is given intravenously (through an IV line), it may cause a patient to urinate more frequently later that day.

Exercise 25. Answer the following questions:

1. What is a CAT Scan?

2. Why would a CAT Scan be done?

3. What does a patient have to do to prepare for a CAT Scan?

4. What is it like to have a CAT Scan?

5. Are there any dangers involved in having a CAT Scan?

Exercise 26. Put all possible special questions to the following sentences.

1. The doctor will explain the procedure to a patient.

2. The technician will help a patient slide inside a large, donut-shaped ring.

3. The procedure takes from 30 minutes to an hour depending on how much of the body needs to be scanned.

4. Computerized axial tomography makes detailed pictures of cross-sections of the body.

5. If contrast material is used, the radiologist will watch for allergic reactions.

6. The results are sent to a patient’s doctor.

7. Doctors and technologists will observe a patient from a control room.

8. Sometimes, the contrast material is swallowed, depending on the type of exam.

9. CAT scan makes pictures of areas protected or surrounded by bone.

10. The patient is lying on the table.

11. During the scan a patient will be alone in the scanning room.

12. The radiologist specializes in reading x-rays and scans.

Exercise 27. Read and translate the text.

Imaging

Many diseases affect the body by changing the anatomy, or structure, of some body part. The ability to"see" inside the body is very important for accurate diagnosis. Endoscopes are tubes with many fibreglass bundles that both transmit and collect light. These devices are inserted into the body through natural openings or incisions and provide pictures of tissues.

Ultrasound is sound energy at frequencies above the level of normal human hearing (that is above 20,000 hertz). Like X rays, ultrasound can present an image of body structures. Unlike X rays, however, well controlled ultrasound is harmless to tissue, and can be used repeatedly over a long time period.

Biological measurement with ultrasound is possible because its propagation, or transmission, varies with the mechanical properties of the tissue. Because various tissues absorb and scatter ultrasonic energy differently, ultrasound is often used for the detection of boundaries between various types of tissue, such as that between skin and muscle. Standard two-dimensional and prototype three-dimensional ultrasonic imaging can also detect changes in organs due to disease. Such changes include the buildup of atherosclerotic plaques in arteries or the development of tumours in the liver and other organs. Very high frequency ultrasound transducers are also mounted on the tips of catheters that can be inserted into specific blood vessels to obtain images of the insides of arteries. Furthermore, the constant motion of blood cells changes the frequency with which ultrasound is reflected off of them.

Thus, bioengineers can determine the speed of blood flow in any part of the body by measuring the frequency of reflected ultrasonic waves and converting this into colour-coded flow images.

In addition to standard X-ray devices, computed X-ray tomography (CT) scanners can provide greater detail using advanced radiographic techniques. Using multiple X-ray sources and detectors arranged in a hollow ring, high resolution images can be obtained of the body in cross section. By combining several cross-sectional images along the body's long axis (the line from head to foot), three-dimensional images can be generated.

Nuclear medicine procedures allow selective imaging of body regions that have absorbed specialized radioactive materials. By scanning over these regions with gamma-ray detectors, it is possible to generate an image based on the uptake or metabolism of certain "tagged" compounds, such as barium.

A newer technique involves the production of images using the magnetic properties of various elements. The element hydrogen, which is contained in all organic molecules, can be monitored with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The procedure begins by inserting the body into a large magnet. This causes the magnetic spin of the hydrogen nuclei to align with the magnet. Radiofrequency signals are then used to alter that spin alignment temporarily, producing a distinctive magnetic echo when the signal is discontinued. Emitted echoes from throughout the body can then be used to make images of certain organs based upon the hydrogen concentration of each organ.

Positron-emission tomography (PET) and single-photon-emission tomography (SPECT) utilize the release of high-energy gamma rays from radioactive particles transmitted through the body to form an image based on the location of the emitting source.

Exercise 28. Give Ukrainian equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

To transmit light, to collect light, fibreglass bundles, to affect the body, accurate diagnosis, to absorb, boundaries between various types of tissue, detect changes in organs, to scatter ultrasonic energy, to determine the speed of blood flow, ultrasound transducers, to be mounted on the tips of catheters, to obtain images, to be reflected off, to combine several cross-sectional images, advanced radiographic techniques, reflected ultrasonic waves, to determine the speed of blood flow, body's long axis, selective imaging, to generate an image, magnetic spin, to alter, emitted echoes, hydrogen nuclei, to insert into the body, incisions, to provide pictures of tissues, anatomy, ability to"see", to release energy, buildup, to align, “tagged” compounds, to vary, human hearing, harmless to tissues, propagation, transducer, incisions, endoscopes.

Exercise 29. Give English equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

Змінювати, розміри, поглинати енергію, представляти зображення, вирівнювати, виявляти пухлини, розсіювати, зосередження, збирати світло, ендоскоп, скловолокно, передавати хвилі, високочастотні звукові хвилі, точний діагноз, виміри, вражати тіло, відображати хвилі, людський слух, ядро, трьохвимірні зображення, радіографічні методи, атеросклеротична бляшка, різні типи тканин, компоненти.

Exercise 30. Answer the questions:

1. What ways do diseases affect the human body?

2. What is an endoscope?

3. What do endoscopes provide?

4. What can ultrasound present?

5. What are advantages of ultrasound?

6. What imaging can detect changes in organs due to disease?

7. What do CAT scanners provide?

8. What can clinicians obtain using multiple X-ray sources and detectors?

9. What do nuclear medicine procedures allow?

10. What do the magnetic properties of various components provide?

11. What does PET utilize to form an image based on the location of emitting source?

Exercise 31. Form plural of the following nouns.

Density, tissue, image, frequency, medium, graph, technique, ray, variety, body, property, issue, diagnosis, isotope, abnormality, cavity, slice, fluid, disease, inability, kidney, screen, emulsion, intrusion.

Exercise 32. Form nouns from the following verbs.

To detect, to swallow, to expand, to annihilate, to yield, to create, to reconstruct, to provide, to show, to arrange, to release, to absorb, to improve, to align, to involve, to locate, to utilize, to generate, to emit, to mount, to harm, to insert, to collect, to affect, to change, to transmit, to carry, to perform, to increase, to reduce, to treat, to use, to convert.

Exercise 33. Open the brackets and use the correct form in Passive Voice.

1. Detectors …..(to arrange) in a hollow ring.

2. The body …..(to affect) by many diseases changing the anatomy.

3. The element hydrogen …(to monitor) with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

4. Three-dimensional images..(to generate) by combining several cross-sectional images along the body's long axis (the line from head to foot).

5. An image …(to base) on the location of the emitting source.

6. The element hydrogen…..(to contain) in all organic molecules.

7. Emitted echoes …(to use) to make images of certain organs.

8. The radioactive substance …(to produce) in a laboratory near the PET scanner.

9. PET …...(to do) by a radiologist who has specialized in nuclear medicine.

10. The release of energy …(to detect) by the PET scanner.

Exercise 34. Fill the gaps with a proper word.

structural	defining	vertebrae
verify	kidneys	are used
changes	analyze	parts
intervertebral	contrast material	be identified

CAT scans are performed to __________ the internal structures of various _________ of the body. This includes the head, where traumatic injuries, (such as blood clots or skull fractures), tumours, and infections can __ _______. In the spine, the bony structure of the __________ can be accurately defined, as can the anatomy of the ___________ discs and spinal cord. Occasionally, _______ ________ (an x-ray dye) is placed into the spinal fluid to further enhance the scan and the various ___________ relationships. CAT scans ____ ________in the chest to identify tumours, cysts, or infections that may be suspected on a chest x-ray. CAT scans of the abdomen are extremely helpful in __________ body organ anatomy, including visualizing the liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, aorta, ____________, uterus, and ovaries. CAT scans in this area are used to ________ the presence or absence of tumours, infection, abnormal anatomy, or __________ of the body from trauma.

Exercise 35. Put all possible special questions to the sentences.

1. A CAT scan is used to define normal and abnormal structures in the body.

2. CAT scan procedure combines many x-ray images with the aid of a computer to generate cross-sectional views.

3. A large donut-shaped x-ray machine takes x-ray images at many different angles around the body.

4. These images are processed by a computer to produce cross-sectional pictures of the body.

5. Contrast material may be injected intravenously.

6. The technique is painless and can provide extremely accurate images of body structures.

7. Contrast material (an x-ray dye) is placed into the spinal fluid to further enhance the scan.

8. Many of these procedures are minimally invasive and have markedly decreased the need to perform surgery to accomplish the same goal.

9. The amount of radiation a person receives during a CAT scan is minimal.

10. The actual procedure can take from a half an hour to an hour and a half.

11. All metallic materials and certain clothing around the body are removed because they can interfere with the clarity of the images.

12. Newer intravenous contrast agents have been developed, such as Isovue, which have nearly eliminated the complication.

13. Patients are placed on a movable table, and the table is slipped into the centre of a large donut-shaped machine.

14. The technologist directly watches the patient through an observation window during the procedure.

15. This significantly increases the clarity of the x-ray images.

16. CAT scans have vastly improved the ability of doctors to diagnose many diseases earlier in their course and with much less risk than previous methods.

Exercise 36. Retell the text.

UNIT 2

Exercise 1. Read and translate the text using the Glossary below the text.

Commom Diseases and Ailments

1. There is no end in sight in the battle between human beings and the diseases that can destroy them. However, in the 20th century, the nature of the enemy has changed dramatically. In countries where modern medical facilities are available, infectious diseases that were once widespread killers can now be prevented or diagnosed early and cured. Thanks to vaccines,antibiotics,and improved sanitation, most of the dreaded epidemics of the past are not likely to recur.

2. Today's major killers are noninfectious diseases - especially the various forms of cardiovascular disease and cancer. As life expectancy increases, people are more likely to succumb to degenerative conditions that the aging body is susceptible to. In addition, many factors of modern life - such as environmental pollution, occupational hazards, stress, a sedentary lifestyle, an unhealthy diet, the use of cigarettes, drug and alcohol abuse contribute to the development of disease.

3. One of the most common serious afflictions in modern society is heart disease. This general label encompasses many different abnormal conditions, including congenital heart defects (many of which can be re-paired surgically), diseases of the pericardium (the tissue surrounding the heart muscle), and diseases affecting the heart muscle itself (the myocardium). Physicians can often detect or predict heart problems by measuring the rate of the heartbeat (called the pulse) and by taking the patient's blood pressure. Another important diagnostic tool is the electrocardiogram (EKG), a record of the electrical activity of the heart, which can reveal abnormal cardiac rhythm and myocardial damage. When heart disease is suspected and more detailed information is needed, an angiogramis ordered. This series of X-ray films (taken after the injection of a radiopaque substance) defines the size and shape of various veins and arteries.

4. The most common cardiovascular disease is atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). Atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries may cause the development of a coronary thrombus (blood clot), which blocks the flow of blood to the heart muscle. If, as a result, part of the heart muscle dies, the condition is called myocardial infarction (a heart attack). Some symptoms and signs of a heart attack are pain in the chest (and sometimes also in the jaws and arms), shortness of breath, irregular pulse, nausea, and perspiration. Prompt cardiopulmonary resuscitation can save victims from sudden death. Among the emergency procedures used is a technique known aspercutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA). This technique widens coronary arteries that have become dangerously narrow due to deposits (called plaque)on their interior walls. The procedure involves manipulating a catheter (flexible tube) into the constricted vessel, then inflating a small balloon at its tip, thereby compressing the plaque and widening the passage. This procedure can sometimes substitute for a much more traumatic one - bypass surgery.

5. When atherosclerosis affects the carotid and vertebral arteries (which supply blood to the brain), a stroke may result, causing paralysis (paralytic stroke)and sometimes affecting speech and brain function. Atherosclerosis can also weaken the aorta wall, causing it to develop a balloonlike structure called an aneurysm.Large aneurysms can rupture, causingfatal hemorrhage. Patients can decrease the likelihood of developing atherosclerosis by cutting down on their consumption of fats, cutting out cigarettes, and getting adequate exercise.

6. Less serious but still frightening is the condition called angina pectoris,chest pains that occur when the heart muscle does not get enough oxygen (often because of a temporary spasm of a vessel). An attack is usually caused by overexertion and can be relieved by rest and nitroglycerin tablets.

7. Patients with various kinds of heart conditions may be treated medically with many different drugs including anticoagulants to reduce the chance of blood clotting, beta blockers to reduce high blood pressure, ordigitalis to increase the force of the heart's contractions. Surgical treatments include repair or replacement of valves or arteries, insertion of a pacemaker to regulate heartbeat, or even the substitution of an artificial or a transplanted human heart for the patient's diseased one.

8. The relationship between cardiovascular disease and hypertension (high blood pressure) is well known, so patients with high blood pressure are generally placed on a regimen including a low-salt diet, regular exercise, and sometimes medication that will bring the blood pressure down to within normal limits.

9. Another major killer is cancer. Cancer is characterized by an unrestrained growth of abnormal cells. There are three main types of cancer: a carcinoma originates from the surface cells of the skin or the linings of the internal organs; a sarcomaattacks the muscles, bones, tendons, cartilage, fat, blood vessels, lymph system, or connective tissue; leukemia’safflict the blood-forming cells. Some cancers grow slowly; others spread rapidly, doubling in bulk in days. Cancer can appear anywhere in the body, but some common sites are the lungs, breasts, uterus, skin, colon, prostate, and blood. Symptoms vary greatly depending upon the location, but some of the most common symptoms are unusual bleeding or discharge, a thickening in any area, a sore that doesn't heal, hoarseness or difficulty swallowing, indigestion, a change in bowel or bladder habits, or unexplained weight loss.

10. Today, many types of cancer can be cured, especially if detected early. For this reason, many diagnostic procedures - such as a biopsy, mammogram, or colonoscopy (examination of the large intestine) or other internal examinations - are employed when cancer is suspected. A localized malignancy is sometimes treated and cured by surgery alone, but sometimes radiation or chemotherapy (drug or chemical treatment) is used in combination with surgery. A malignancy that has metastasized (spread from its place of origin to another organ or site) requires higher doses of chemotherapy and/or radiation and is more difficult to cure.

11. The etiology of many types of cancer remains an enigma to scientists. Some of the causes are known, however, including cigarette smoking, overexposure to X-rays or sunlight, and contact with certain chemicals. Some forms of cancer seem to run in families; others may be caused by a virus.

12. The neuromuscular systems in the body can be affected by a number of diseases. These diseases all cause a loss of muscular control by disturbing the nerves which control the muscles. In muscular dystrophy, a chronic and inherited disease, the muscles gradually atrophy (waste away). A patient with Parkinson's disease often exhibits uncontrollable shaking caused by basal ganglion dysfunctions. Multiple sclerosis victims suffer from a loss of muscular coordination in various parts of their bodies because of damage to nerve fibers. Unfortunately, none of these diseases is curable at present. All that can be done for a victim is to lessen the undesirable symptoms.

13. A disease that attacks the kidneys is nephritis. There are many different types and many causes of nephritis, including bacteria and toxins. The kidneys regulate the elimination of urine from the body. If the disease becomes severe enough to destroy the kidneys, the victim can be saved through the transplantation of a donor's kidney or by regular use of a renalhemodialisis machine. This machine substitutes for the kidneys, cleansing the body of its liquid wastes.

14. Diabetes mellitus is a disease in which the body no longer uses sugar properly. In a healthy body, special cells in the pancreas secrete the hormones insulin and glycogen, which help to store sugar. In the body of a diabetic, these hormones are inadequately produced or utilized. The disease is usually diagnosed by the discovery of sugar in the urine and abnormally high levels of sugar in the blood. If the disease is not controlled, serious complications can develop affecting the eyes, kidneys, and circulatory system. Treatment is usually a combination of a carefully regulated diet, regular exercise, and sometimes insulin injections.

15. Arthritis and rheumatism are general names for approximately 100 diseases that produce inflammation or degeneration of connective tissue. Some of these diseases are infectious and primarily affect younger people. Rheumatic fever, for example, is a bacterial infection that occurs mostly in children or teenagers. Rheumatoid arthritis predominantly strikes women between 20 and 60. However, the most common rheumatic disease is a noninfectious, noninflammatory degenerative joint disease - osteoarthritis.To some degree, it affects nearly all older adults, causing swelling, pain, and stiffness in joints. Treatment may include heat, exercises, and drugs that reduce pain and inflammation.

16. Besides osteoarthritis, many other noninfectious diseases can limit the activities of the elderly. Osteoporosis (a condition in which bone loss exceeds bone replacement so that the bones become less dense, more porous, and more brittle) often leads to fractures, especially of the hip bone. Many conditions conspire to decrease the sensory perception of the elderly. Cataracts (created when the lens of the eye - or a portion of it - becomes opaque and sometimes swells or shrinks) interfere with vision. Deterioration of nerves in the inner ear causes the characteristic old-age hearing loss, most severe in the high-pitched tones. The senses of taste and smell also deteriorate in old age.

17. But what many elderly people fear most is the loss of mental abilities. Confusion, memory loss, and inability to distinguish between reality and fantasy (dementia) are all symptoms that can be caused by damage to the brain. They may result from external injury, a stroke, or deterioration of brain cells due to inadequate blood and oxygen supply. One common cause of severe mental deterioration is Alzheimer's disease, a neurological brain disorder in which there are a variety of abnormal chemical changes in the brain and characteristic nerve cell “tangles" In the United States, about 2.5 million people are afflicted with this condition, almost 6 percent of the population over age 65 and about 20 percent of those over 85.

18. People of all ages suffer from a variety of allergic conditions. Anallergy is an altered reaction of body tissues to a substance which produces no effect upon a nonsensitive person. The substance causing the allergic reaction is called an antigen. The antibody reaction (often the release of histamine) generally makes the person feel sick or uncomfortable. Some people have food allergies (commonly to eggs, strawberries, chocolate, or nuts), and these are likely to cause skin rashes. Others are allergic to airborne particles (inhalants such as dust or pollen). These affect the respiratory tract and cause conditions such as asthma, hay fever, or allergic rhinitis. Another source of allergies is contactants (for example, wool or chemicals that come in contact with the skin). Allergies to specific drugs (penicillin, for example) are also common. Sometimes allergic reactions can be severe and lead to medical emergencies, especially if they interfere with breathing. However, most can be controlled with medication (often antihistamines).Of course, the best way to control an allergic condition is to avoid contact with the antigen, if possible.

19. Among contagious diseases, many of the major killers of the past are no longer widespread problems. Smallpox, for example, has been eradicated in most parts of the world by vigorous immunization campaigns. Poliomyelitis (a disease caused by a virus which attacks the motor neurons of the spinal cord) once left large numbers of its victims temporarily or permanently paralyzed, but today vaccines effectively protect against polio. Tuberculosis, a bacterial infection which commonly affects the lungs, was the number-one killer of Americans prior to 1909. Today, to test for TB, a simple skin test is widely given periodically as part of a routine medical checkup. If the results are positive, a chest X-ray is taken to determine whether the disease is dormant or active. In either case, the condition can then be controlled or cured by medication. Another infection of the lungs, pneumonia, is also much less dangerous than it once was, thanks to antibiotics. (However, among the elderly and those weakened by other serious diseases, pneumonia is still a common cause of death.)

20. Diseases that are common in childhood include chickenpox, measles, mumps, diphtheria, and whooping cough. In the United States, children are routinely immunized against most of these, as well as against tetanus. This is not true in all parts of the world, however, and many children suffer needlessly as a result. Fortunately, these diseases are not usually fatal.

21. Many diseases are transmitted by sexual contact. Once calledvenereal diseases, today they are commonly called sexually transmitted diseases(STD). These include gonorrhea, syphilis, genital herpes, candidiasis (a yeast infection), trichomoniasis, and others. Some of these can be very destructive to the body if not treated, but all can be either cured or controlled by medication. By far the most frightening of the sexually transmitted diseases is Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). This fatal disease is spread by direct sexual contact or exchange of blood (for example, by use of a contaminated hypodermic needle). AIDS destroys its victim's immune system, leaving the patient unprotected against infections that healthy people could fight off. The various "opportunistic infections" common among AIDS patients include a rare type of pneumonia and an unusual form of cancer called Kaposi’s sarcoma. "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure" is an expression that especially applies to AIDS, not only because the use of condoms and sterile needles can protect people from the disease, but also because at present there is no cure. Since a person can be a carrier of the HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) long before symptoms appear, people at risk are urged to take a blood test for diagnosis.

22. At the other end of the disease spectrum are the many conditions that may make people feel temporarily “under the weather” but are not serious enough to require a physician's care- especially if they are only occasional and short-lived. Common infectious conditions such as a cold, the flu, or diarrhea Goose bowel movements) are often self-limiting and can be treated symptomatically with over-the-counter drugs. The same is true of occasional tension headaches and the monthly cramps and lower back pain that are now called premenstrual syndrome - PMS). People often endure the acne of adolescence and the hemorrhoids of pregnancy without consulting a physician, especially when the conditions are not severe. Minor traumas are often self-treated with routine first aid. Most people know that superficial lacerations (cuts) should be thoroughly cleaned and bandaged and that immediate immersion in cold water will relieve the pain of a slightly burned finger or a sprained ankle.

23. The study of diseases should not make students feel fragile and vulnerable. It is important to remember that the human body has a remarkable ability to protect itself against disease and to cure itself when illness or injury does occur. Moreover, when serious illness strikes, modern medicine has extremely sophisticated tools for fighting back.

Exercise 2. Read and discuss the following abnormal conditions:

Allergy - an abnormal sensitivity to a particular substance so that contact with it produces an antigen-antibody reaction. For example, ragweed makes the person allergic to it sneeze.

Aneurysm (alternate spelling:aneurism) - localized abnormal dilation of a blood vessel due to a congenital defect or a weakness in the vessel wall.

Angina pectoris - pain in the mid-chest that sometimes radiates to. the shoulder, left arm, jaw, or abdomen. Usually brought on by physical exertion, the underlying cause is the narrowing of a blood vessel due to temporary spasm or build-up of plaque. The narrowing causes the heart to receive less blood (and therefore less oxygen) than it needs.

Atherosclerosis - a form of arteriosclerosis in which there are localized accumulations of fatty material on the inside walls of blood vessels. Arteriosclerosis, a more general term, includes this condition and other degenerative blood vessel conditions such as loss of elasticity and hardening. Both conditions are commonly called hardening of the arteries.

Atrophy - a wasting away due to lack of nutrition or use; also, a reduction in size of a structure after it has come to full functional maturity. Atrophy is sometimes due to an abnormal condition. For example, the calf muscles may shrink when a patient is not ambulatory for several months. However, atrophy can also be normal, as in the shrinking of the ovaries during menopause.

Hypertension - abnormally high blood pressure. (Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood on the wall of any vessel. What is considered normal varies somewhat with age and sex, but it is abnormally high when above 140/90.)

Infarction - the death of tissue in an organ following the cessation of blood supply. Myocardial infarction (death of part of the heart muscle) usually results from a thrombus (clot) in the coronary arterial system. Coronary thrombosis may also cause cardiac arrest (a sudden cessation of heartbeat).

Paralysis - temporary or permanent loss of function, especially sensation or voluntary motion.

Paralytic stroke - sudden onset of paralysis caused by an injury to the brain or spinal cord.

Exercise 3. Read and discuss the following common medications:

Antibiotics - a variety of substances (some natural and some synthetic) that inhibit the growth of or destroy microorganisms. They are used extensively to treat infectious disease.

Anticoagulant - an agent that prevents or delays blood coagulation. It is sometimes used following heart attacks to prevent further blood clotting or embolisms.

Antihistamine -medicine that counteracts the effect of histamine (a substance normally present in the body and in certain foods), which sometimes causes an allergic reaction. Antihistamines relieve the allergic symptoms.

Digitalis -aheart stimulant drug that increases the force of the muscular contractions of the heart. It is often prescribed for patients with heart failure (a condition which means that the heart cannot maintain adequate circulation of the blood.

Insulin - a hormone secreted by the pancreas; a preparation (usually prepared from the pancreas of animals) taken by hypodermic injection by some diabetic patients. Also, some patients take an oral antidiabetic drug which stimulates their pancreas to release insulin.

Exercise 4. Read and translate the following medical terms:

Angiogram -aX-ray film of a blood vessel.

Angioplasty - atechnique for expanding a narrowed artery by inserting a balloon catheter.

Etiology - acause or causes of a disease.

Fatal - resulting in death.

Hemodialysis – a treatment used to cleanse the blood of patients whose kidneys are defective or absent. To remove toxic chemicals, the blood is passed through tubes made of semipermeable membranes.

Pulse - rhythmic throbbing (pulsation, beating) caused by the contraction and expansion of an artery. It keeps time with the heartbeat. Normal pulse rate can range from 60 to 90 times per minute. (Athletes usually have a lower than average rate.) The pulse is usually taken by feeling the radial artery of the wrist.

Exercise 5. Give Ukrainian equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

To affect the heart muscle, to measure the rate of the heart beat, to reveal abnormal cardiac rhythm, to suspect heart diseases, to define the size and shape of various veins and arteries, to cause of development of coronary thrombus, to save victims, to widen coronary arteries, to inflate a small balloon, to compress the plaque, to supply blood to the brain, to cut down the consumption of fats, to get enough oxygen, to be treated medically, to increase the force of the heart’s contractions, to regulate heartbeat, to bring down the blood pressure, to include a law-salt diet, to detect heart problems, to destroy human beings, to include congenital heart diseases, to reduce high blood pressure, to rapture, to affect the carotid, to widen the passage, to insert a pacemaker.

Exercise 6. Give English equivalents to the following word combinations:

Стенокардія, лікувати, пошкодження міокарду, підвищений кров’яний тиск, заміна клапанів серця, серцево-судинна система, звужені протоки, наповнювати, розширювати судини, реконструкція судин.

Exercise 7. Answer the following questions:

1. What are two possible causes of an aneurysm?

2. What causes a stroke, and what may be the result?

3. If a patient has a broken arm in a cast for several weeks and cannot use the arm, what may happen to the muscles?

4. What does the prefix anti -- mean? Name three drugs that begin with this prefix, and tell their uses.

5. Is an angiogram used for diagnosis or treatment?

6. Is angioplasty a surgical or a medical procedure?

7. What does a person's pulse rate indicate?

8. What medication is often used to treat diabetes?

9. What is the etiology of the common cold?

10. How can a person survive without functioning kidneys?

11. What do medical personnel call the death of human tissue due to insufficient blood supply?

12. Is arteriosclerosis one type of atherosclerosis or vice versa?

13. What does an anticoagulant do? Is it used to treat cancer or cardiovascular conditions?

14. What happens to the victim of a fatal disease?

15. What is the medical term for the condition commonly called highblood pressure?

Exercise 8. Match each

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