Infrastructure. Main articles: Energy in Japan and Transport in Japan

Main articles: Energy in Japan and Transport in Japan

Nozomi Shinkansen or 'Bullet train' atTokyo Station^[130]

As of 2008, 46.4 percent of energy in Japan is produced from petroleum, 21.4 percent from coal, 16.7 percent from natural gas, 9.7 percent from nuclear power, and 2.9 percent from hydro power. Nuclear power produced 25.1 percent of Japan's electricity, as of 2009.^[131] However, in the wake of the Tohoku earthquake and the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, some nuclear reactors have been taken off-line and reliance on fossil fuels is higher.^[132] Given its heavy dependence on imported energy,^[133] Japan has aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levels of energy efficiency.^[134]

Japan's road spending has been extensive.^[135] Its 1.2 million kilometers of paved road are the main means of transportation.^[136] A single network of high-speed, divided, limited-access toll roads connects major cities and is operated by toll-collecting enterprises. New and used cars are inexpensive; car ownership fees and fuel levies are used to promote energy efficiency. However, at just 50 percent of all distance traveled, car usage is the lowest of all G8 countries.^[137]

Dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transportation markets; major companies include seven JR enterprises,Kintetsu Corporation, Seibu Railway and Keio Corporation. Some 250 high-speed Shinkansen trains connect major cities and Japanese trains are known for their safety and punctuality.^[138][139] Proposals for a new Maglev route between Tokyo and Osaka are at an advanced stage.^[140] There are 173 airports in Japan; the largest domestic airport, Haneda Airport, is Asia's second-busiest airport.^[141] The largest international gateways are Narita International Airport, Kansai International Airport and Chūbu Centrair International Airport.^[142] Nagoya Port is the country's largest and busiest port, accounting for 10 percent of Japan's trade value.^[143]

Demographics

Japan's population is estimated at around 127.3 million.^[2] Japanese society is linguistically and culturally homogeneous,^[144] composed of 98.5% ethnic Japanese,^[145] with small populations of foreign workers.^[144] Zainichi Koreans,^[146] Zainichi Chinese, Filipinos, Brazilians mostly of Japanese descent,^[147] and Peruvians mostly of Japanese descent are among the small minority groups in Japan.^[148] In 2003, there were about 134,700 non-Latin American Western and 345,500 Latin American expatriates, 274,700 of whom were Brazilians (said to be primarily Japanese descendants, or nikkeijin, along with their spouses),^[147] the largest community of Westerners.^[149]

The most dominant native ethnic group is the Yamato people; primary minority groups include the indigenous Ainu^[150] and Ryukyuan peoples, as well as social minority groups like the burakumin. ^[151]There are persons of mixed ancestry incorporated among the 'ethnic Japanese' or Yamato, such as those from Ogasawara Archipelago where roughly one-tenth of the Japanese population can have European, American, Micronesian and/or Polynesian backgrounds, with some families going back up to seven generations.^[152] In spite of the widespread belief that Japan is ethnically homogeneous (in 2009, foreign-born non-naturalized workers made up only 1.7% of the total population),^[153] also due to the absence of ethnicity and/or race statistics for Japanese nationals, it is probably more accurate to describe it as a multiethnic society, according to John Lie.^[154]

Japan has the longest overall life expectancy rate of any country in the world.^[14][15] The Japanese population is rapidly aging as a result of a post–World War II baby boom followed by a decrease in birth rates. In 2009, about 22.7 percent of the population was over 65, by 2050 almost 40 percent of the population will be aged 65 and over, as projected in December 2006.^[155] The changes in demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in workforce population and increase in the cost of social security benefits like the public pension plan. A growing number of younger Japanese are preferring not to marry or have families.^[156]

Japan's population is expected to drop to 95 million by 2050,^[155] demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem.^[156] Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population.^[157][158] Japan accepts a steady flow of 15,000 new Japanese citizens by naturalization (帰化) per year.^[159] According to the UNHCR, in 2007 Japan accepted just 41 refugees for resettlement, while the US took in 50,000.^[160]

Japan suffers from a high suicide rate.^[161][162] In 2009, the number of suicides exceeded 30,000 for the twelfth straight year.^[163] Suicide is the leading cause of death for people under 30.^[164]

Religion

Torii of Itsukushima Shrine nearHiroshima, one of the Three Views of Japan and a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Upper estimates suggest that 84–96 percent of the Japanese population subscribe to Buddhism or Shinto, including a large number of followers of a syncretismof both religions.^[2][166] However, these estimates are based on people affiliated with a temple, rather than the number of true believers. Other studies have suggested that only 30 percent of the population identify themselves as belonging to a religion.^[167] Nevertheless the level of participation remains high, especially during festivals and occasions such as the first shrine visit of the New Year. Taoism and Confucianism from China have also influenced Japanese beliefs and customs.^[168] Fewer than one percent of Japanese are Christian.^[169] In addition, since the mid-19th century numerous new religious movements have emerged in Japan.^[170]

Languages

Main article: Japanese language

More than 99 percent of the population speaks Japanese as their first language.^[2] It is an agglutinative language distinguished by a system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary indicating the relative status of speaker and listener. Japanese writing useskanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on simplified Chinese characters), as well as the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals.^[171]

Besides Japanese, the Ryukyuan languages, also part of the Japonic language family, are spoken in Okinawa; however, few children learn these languages.^[172] The Ainu language, which is unrelated to Japanese or any other known language, is moribund, with only a few elderly native speakers remaining in Hokkaido.^[173] Most public and private schools require students to take courses in both Japanese and English.^[174]

Health

In Japan, health care is provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance. Patients are free to select the physicians or facilities of their choice.

Culture

Kinkaku-ji or 'The Temple of the Golden Pavilion' in Kyoto, Special Historic Site, Special Place of Scenic Beauty, and UNESCO World Heritage Site; its torching by a monk in 1950 is the subject of a novel by Mishima

Main articles: Culture of Japan, Japanese popular culture, and Japanese folklore

Japanese culture has evolved greatly from its origins. Contemporary culture combines influences from Asia, Europe and North America. Traditional Japanese arts include crafts such as ceramics, textiles, lacquerware, swords and dolls; performances of bunraku, kabuki, noh, dance, and rakugo; and other practices, the tea ceremony, ikebana, martial arts, calligraphy, origami, onsen, Geisha and games. Japan has a developed system for the protection and promotion of both tangible and intangible Cultural Properties and National Treasures.^[182] Sixteen sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.^[183]

Art

The Great Wave off Kanagawa, one of a series of woodblock prints byHokusai

The Shrines of Ise have been celebrated as the prototype of Japanese architecture.^[184] Largely of wood, traditional housing and many temple buildings see the use of tatami mats and sliding doors that break down the distinction between rooms and indoor and outdoor space.^[185] Japanese sculpture, largely of wood, andJapanese painting are among the oldest of the Japanese arts, with early figurative paintings dating back to at least 300 BC. The history of Japanese painting exhibits synthesis and competition between native Japanese aesthetics and adaptation of imported ideas. The interaction between Japanese and European art has been significant: for example ukiyo-e prints, which began to be exported in the 19th century in the movement known as Japonism, had a significant influence on the development of modern art in the West, most notably on post-Impressionism.^[186] Famous ukiyo-e artists include Hokusai and Hiroshige. The fusion of traditional woodblock printing and Western art led to the creation of manga, a comic book format that is now popular within and outside Japan.^[187] Manga-influenced animation for television and film is called anime. Japanese-made video game consoles have been popular since the 1980s.^[188]

Music

Main article: Music of Japan

Japanese music is eclectic and diverse. Many instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the 9th and 10th centuries. The accompanied recitative of theNoh drama dates from the 14th century and the popular folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, from the sixteenth.^[189] Western classical music, introduced in the late 19th century, now forms an integral part of Japanese culture. The imperial court ensemble Gagaku has influenced the work of some modern Western composers.^[190] Notable classical composers from Japan include Toru Takemitsu and Rentarō Taki. Popular music in post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European trends, which has led to the evolution of J-pop, or Japanese popular music.^[191] Karaoke is the most widely practiced cultural activity in Japan. A 1993 survey by the Cultural Affairs Agency found that more Japanese had sung karaoke that year than had participated in traditional pursuits such as flower arranging (ikebana) or tea ceremonies.^[192]

Literature

Main articles: Japanese literature and Japanese poetry

12th-century illustrated handscroll of The Tale of Genji, a National Treasure

The earliest works of Japanese literature include the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki chronicles and the Man'yōshū poetry anthology, all from the 8th century and written in Chinese characters.^[193][194] In the early Heian period, the system of phonograms known as kana (Hiragana and Katakana) was developed. The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative.^[195] An account of Heian court life is given in The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon, while The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu is often described as the world's first novel.^[196][197]

During the Edo period, the chōnin ("townspeople") overtook the samurai aristocracy as producers and consumers of literature. The popularity of the works ofSaikaku, for example, reveals this change in readership and authorship, while Bashō revivified the poetic tradition of the Kokinshū with his haikai (haiku) and wrote the poetic travelogue Oku no Hosomichi. ^[198] The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms as Japanese literature integrated Western influences.Natsume Sōseki and Mori Ōgai were the first "modern" novelists of Japan, followed by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Yasunari Kawabata, Yukio Mishima and, more recently, Haruki Murakami. Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors—Yasunari Kawabata (1968) and Kenzaburō Ōe (1994).^[195]

Sports

Sumo wrestlers form around the referee during the ring-entering ceremony

Traditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national sport.^[201] Japanese martial arts such as judo, karate and kendo are also widely practiced and enjoyed by spectators in the country. After the Meiji Restoration, many Western sports were introduced in Japan and began to spread through the education system.^[202]Japan hosted the Summer Olympics in Tokyo in 1964. Japan has hosted the Winter Olympics twice: Nagano in 1998 and Sapporo in 1972.^[203]

The Japanese professional baseball league was established in 1936.^[204] Today baseball is the most popular spectator sport in the country. Since the establishment of the Japan Professional Football League in 1992, association football has also gained a wide following.^[205] Japan was a venue of theIntercontinental Cup from 1981 to 2004 and co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea.^[206] Japan has one of the most successful football teams in Asia, winning the Asian Cup four times.^[207] Also, Japan recently won the FIFA Women's World Cup in 2011.^[208] Golf is also popular in Japan,^[209] as are forms of auto racing like the Super GT series and Formula Nippon.^[210]

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