Bare Infinitive

Contents

Page

Verbals 4

The Infinitive 5

Grammar Practice 20

Grammar in Use 46

Fun with Grammar 63

The Gerund 77

Grammar Practice 99

Grammar in Use 117

Fun with Grammar 122

The Participle 129

Grammar Practice 142

Grammar in Use 163

Fun with Grammar 167

General Revision 173

Verbals

(Non-Finite Forms of the English Verbs)

1. The verb has finite and non-finite forms, which are also called verbals. There are three verbals in English: the infinitve, the gerund and the participle.

The verbals have the following characteristics:

a) The verbals, unlike the finite forms, do not express person, number or mood; they cannot be used as the predicate of a sentence.

b) They have a double nature, nominal and verbal: they combine some characteristics of the verb with those of the adjective, the adverb or the noun.

c) Like the finite forms of the verb, the verbals have the tense and voice distinctions. Their tense distinctions are relative: their form does not refer the action to the present, past or future, it shows only whether the action expressed by the verbal is simultaneous with that expressed by the finite verb or prior to it.

d) All the verbals can form predicative constructions, which consist of two elements: a noun / pronoun + verbal; the verbal element stands in predicate relations to the nominal element, i.e. in a relation similar to that between the predicate and the subject of a sentence.

e) In a sentence a verbal can occur:

- singly, i.e. without accompanying words.

She went away smiling.

Reading is out of the question.

To decide is to act.

- in phrases, with one or more accompanying words.

Lucy came in smiling happily.

Selling insurance is a pretty boring job.

It’s easy to make mistakes.

- in predicative constructions.

His study was a nice room with books lining the walls.

Do you recall Richard’s doing that?

Is it usual for foxes to come so close to the town?

The Infinitive

Introduction

The infinitive is a plain verb stem which is usually preceded by the particle to, e.g. to take.

The infinitive has a double nature, nominal and verbal.

The nominal character of the infinitive is manifested in it syntactic functions, i.e.:

- the subject To wait for people made him angry.

- a predicative My ambition was to retire at thirty.

- an object My granny has never learnt to read or write.

The verbal characteristics of the infinitive are as follows:

- The infinitive can take a direct object.

Jack began to feel some curiosity.

- The infinitive can be modified by an adverb.

I thought it strange for her to be out so late.

- The infinitive has analytical forms expressing tense, aspect and voice distinctions.

Forms

The infinitive has the following forms:

	Active	Passive
Indefinite	To take	To be taken
Continuous	To be taking
Perfect	To have taken	To have been taken
Perfect Continuous	To have been taking

3.1. The Indefinite Infinitive expresses an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb. So it may refer to the present, past or future.

Roger seemed to know all about it.

I’ll be glad to run across an old schoolmate.

3.2. The Continuous (progressive) Infinitive also denotes an action simultaneous with that denoted by the finite verb but it is an action in progress.

It’s nice to be sitting here with you.

Why’s she so late? She can’t still be working.

I noticed that he seemed to be smoking a lot.

3.3. The Perfect Infinitive denotes an action prior to the action expressed by the finite verb.

He seemed to have guessed the truth.

I’m sorry not to have come on Thursday.

We often use perfect infinitives to talk about “unreal” past events: things that did not happen or might not have happened.

You should have told me you were coming.

After such verbs as to mean, expect, intend, hope, in the Past Indefinite, the Perfect Infinitive shows that the hope or intention was not carried out.

I meant to have telephoned but I forgot.(= I had meant to telephone … = I meant to telephone but never did.)

3.4. The Perfect Continuous Infinitive denotes an action which lasted a certain time before the action of the finite verb (and might be still going on).

They seemed to have been getting on a bit better.

He must have been feeling all along that there was something strange about the whole affair.

3.5. The infinitive of transitive verbs has passive forms which are used when the subject is not the doer of the action expressed by the infinitive but may undergo this action, be acted upon.

I have not come here to be insulted but to talk to you as a friend.

She ought to be told about it.

Sometimes active and passive infinitives can have similar meanings, especially after a noun, in sentences with the construction there is.

The people to interview / to be interviewed are in the next room.

There is a lot of work to do / to be done.

There are six letters to post / to be posted.

Perfect passive infinitives are common.

They were very lucky – they could have been killed.

Continuous passive infinitives are possible but unusual.

“What would you like to be doing now?”

“I’d like to be being massaged. ”

Perfect Continuous passive infinitives do not normally occur, e.g. “It must have been being built then.”

Bare Infinitive

The particle to is normally used before infinitives.

He wanted to go.

4.1. However, in some cases the bare infinitive (i.e. the infinitive without the particle to) is used:

- after auxiliary verbs

Do you think she might be joking?

- after modal verbs (except ought, sometimes need and dare)

You could walk round the earth in a year.

- after verbs denoting sense perception such as hear, see, notice, feel, watch.

We both heard him say that he was leaving.

I didn’t see you come in.

- after the verb to let.

She lets her children stay up very late.

Let me just get my coat and I’ll be with you.

- after the verbs to make and to have in the meaning “заставлять, велеть, допускать”.

I made them give me my money back.

Have Mrs. Hansen come in, please.

- after the expressions had better, would rather, would sooner, cannot but, cannot choose but, nothing but, rather than.

You ’d better see what she wants.

I didn’t enjoy it. I’d rather have stayed at home.

Rather than wait, I decided to take a taxi.

You’ve done nothing but grumble all day.

- after why (not)

Why pay more at other shops? We have the lowest prices.

You’re looking tired. Why not take a holiday?

4.2. Sometimes a bare infinitive or a to-infinitive can be used:

- after the verbs to know, to see, to observe (mostly in perfect tenses)

I’ve never known him (to) pay for a drink.

- after help

Could you help me (to) unload the car?

- after the link verb to be in sentences like:

All I did was (to) give him a little push.

- after and, or, except, but, than, as, like. When two infinitives are joined by and, or, except, etc. the second is often used without to.

I’d like to lie down and go to sleep.

It’s easier to do it yourself than explain to anybody else how to do it.

I have to feed the animals as well as look after the children.

As for the housework, she does everything except cook.

4.3. After the verbs hear, see, make, know, help in the passive the to-infinitive is used.

She was heard to say that she disagreed.

He was made to pay back the money.

Lydia was never known to complain or find fault.

4.4. The particle to is used instead of a whole infinitive if it is easily understood from the context.

“Are you and Gillian getting married? “ “We hope to ”.

I don’t dance much now, but I used to a lot.

“Somebody ought to clean the bathroom.” “I’ll ask John to ”.

Be and stative have are not usually dropped.

There are more flowers than there used to be.

You’ve got more freckles than you used to have.

We cannot usually leave out to after would like / love / hate / prefer, want and choose.

My parents encouraged me to study art, but I didn’t want to.

However, to is often dropped after want and almost always after like, when these are used after conjunctions, for instance when, if, what, as:

Come when you want (to).

I’ll do what I like.

4.5. A “split infinitive” is a structure in which to is separated from the rest of the infinitive by an adverb.

I’d like to really understand philosophy.

Split infinitives are quite common in English, especially in an informal style. Some people consider them incorrect or careless, and avoid them by putting an adverb in another position.

He began slowly to get up off the floor.

Functions

The infinitive can be used in different syntactic functions.

Subject:

To make mistakes is easy. To defrost this fridge takes ages.

The infinitive as a subject may precede the predicate. In Modern English, this is unusual in informal style. The infinitive more often follows the predicate, and the sentence opens with the introductory it, which is “a formal subject”.

It’s easy to make mistakes.

It upsets me to hear people arguing all the time.

It was good of you to phone.

Predicative:

Your task is to get across the river without being seen.

Part of a predicative:

He’s easy to amuse. She is nice to talk to.

His theory is impossible to understand. (= It’s impossible to understand his theory)

His theory is the object of to understand.

Note that we do not put a pronoun after the infinitive or preposition.

Cricket is not very interesting to watch it.

Part of a compound verbal predicate:

She seems to be crying.

- modal predicate

Who should I pay?

The cleaning is to be finished by midday.

I’m going to / intend to inform the police.

- aspect predicate

Before daylight it started to drizzle.

Object:

Many verbs can be followed by an infinitive as an object, for example:

afford consent learn prefer swear

agree decide like prepare trouble

arrange except love pretend try

ask fail manage promise want

attempt forget mean propose wish

beg hate neglect refuse wait

care help offer regret

choose hesitate omit remember

claim hope plan threaten

I don’t want to see you again.

I expect to have finished by tomorrow evening.

Some of these verbs can be followed by the Objective with the Infinitive Construction or the For-to-Infinitive Construction (see next function).

I want her to be happy.

I’ve arranged for Judy to have violin lessons.

The infinitive used as an object can be preceded by “the introductory object it”.

He found it impossible to leave the child alone.

An infinitive can be used after the questions words who, what, where, etc. (but not usually why).

I wonder who to invite. (=…who I should invite).

I don’t know where to put the car.

I can’t decide whether to answer her letter.

An infinitive is used as an object after adjectives such as pleased, lucky, sorry, afraid, etc.

You were very lucky not to be killed.

Most people are afraid to hear the truth about themselves.

Part of a Complex Object (as the verbal element in the Objective with the Infinitive Construction and the For-to-Infinitive Construction, see …):

Why won’t you let me explain?

I heard her open the door and go out.

Anne asked for the designs to be ready by Friday.

Attribute:

An infinitive modifies abstract and class nouns, indefinite and negative pronouns, ordinal numerals, the adjectives next and last.

Who was the first person ever to climb Everest without oxygen?

The next to arrive was a big black snake.

I told her about my decision to leave.

I’d like something to stop my toothache.

The infinitive can express the idea of obligation, possibility, purpose, an intended effect.

Have you got a key to open this door?

The carpets to be cleaned are in the garage.

Is there any milk to put on the cornflakes?

I’ve got some letters to write (=letters that I have to write).

Take something to read on the train. (= something you can read).

Adverbial modifier:

a) an adverbial modifier of purpose

I sat down to rest.

To switch on, press red button.

It can be introduced by in order (more formal) and so as.

He got up early in order to have more time to pack.

I moved to a new flat so as to be near my work.

In order and so as are normal before stative verbs like be, have, know and before negative infinitives.

I watched him in order to know more about him.

I’m going to leave now so as not to be late.

b) an adverbial modifier of result

In this function infinitive is chiefly used after adjectives modified by enough or too.

Mr. Evans was too busy to see anyone.

You are old enough to earn your own living.

An infinitive can be used after a noun modified by enough, too much/little, etc.

There was enough light to see what I was doing.

There’s to much snow to be able to drive.

It is also found after so – Adjective – as or such – a Noun – as. The result is negative.

He was so weak as to be unable to work.

She was such a fool as to promise him money.

c) an adverbial modifier of comparison

An infinitive is introduced by the conjunction as if or as though.

She moved her hand towards his lips as if to stop him.

d) an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances

I arrived home to find that the house had been burgled. (=…arrived and found that…)

The idea of surprise or disappointment can be emphasized by using only before the infinitive.

He spent four years getting a degree, only to learn that there were no jobs for graduates.

e) an adverbial modifier of cause

The infinitive of see and hear can explain the cause of a (false) impression. It is usually followed by you’d think or a similar expression.

To see him walk down the street, you’d never know he was blind.

To hear her talk, you’d think she was made of money.

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