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Notes
1. ^ Harper, Douglas (2001). Online Etymology Dictionary
2. ^ Levine, Donald (ed) 'Simmel: On individuality and social forms' Chicago University Press, 1971. p6.
3. ^ Hoebel, Adamson. Anthropology: Study of Man.
4. ^ Macionis, Gerber, John, Linda (2010). Sociology 7th Canadian Ed. Toronto, Ontario: Pearson Canada Inc. p. 53.
5. ^ ab Velkley, Richard (2002). "The Tension in the Beautiful: On Culture and Civilization in Rousseau and German Philosophy". Being after Rousseau: Philosophy and Culture in Question. The University of Chicago Press. pp. 11–30
6. ^ Immanuel Kant 1974 "Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?" (German: "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?") Berlinische Monatsschrift, December (Berlin Monthly)
7. ^ Michael Eldridge, "The German Bildung Tradition" UNC Charlotte
8. ^ "Adolf Bastian", Today in Science History; "Adolf Bastian", Encyclopædia Britannica
9. ^ ab Arnold, Matthew. 1869. Culture and Anarchy.
10. ^ Williams (1983), p.90. Cited in Shuker, Roy (1994). Understanding Popular Music, p.5. ISBN 0-415-10723-7. argues that contemporary definitions of culture fall into three possibilities or mixture of the following three:
§ "a general process of intellectual, spiritual, and aesthetic development"
§ "a particular way of life, whether of a people, period, or a group"
§ "the works and practices of intellectual and especially artistic activity".
11. ^ Bakhtin 1981, p.4
12. ^ McClenon, p.528-529
13. ^ Robert Yerkes 1943 Chimpanzees: A Laboratory Colony. New Haven: Yale University Press. 51–52, 189, 193
14. ^ Jane Goodall 1963 "My Life Among Wild Chimpanzees" National Geographic 124: 308
15. ^ R. J. Andrew 1963 "Comment on The Essential Morphological Basis for Human Culture" Alan Bryan Current Anthropology 4: 301–303, p. 301
16. ^ Alan Bryan 1963 "The Essential Morphological basis for Human Culture" Current Anthropology 4: 297
17. ^ Keleman 1963 "Comment on The Essential Morphological Basis for Human Culture" Alan Bryan Current Anthropology 4: 301–303 p.304
18. ^ W. C. McGrew 1998 "Culture in nonhuman primates?" Annual Review of Anthropology 27: 301–328
19. ^ ab W.C. McGrew 1998 "Culture in Nonhuman Primates?" Annual Review of Anthropology 27: 323
20. ^ W.C. McGrew 1998 "Culture in Nonhuman Primates?" Annual Review of Anthropology 27: 305
21. ^ C.F. Voegelin 1951 "Culture, Language and the Human Organism" Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 7: 370
22. ^ ab Michael Tomasello 1999, p. 511.
23. ^ M. King and A Wilson 1975 "Evolution at two levels: in humans and chimpanzees" Science 188: 107–116
24. ^ Stringer and McKiew 1996 African Exodus: The origins of Modern Humanity. London: Cape
25. ^ ab Michael Tomasello 1999, p. 510.
26. ^ ab Michael Tomasello 1999, p. 512.
27. ^ Michael Tomasello 1999, p. 520.
28. ^ ab Michael Tomasello 1990 "Cultural Transmission in the Tool Use and Communicatory Signaling of Chimpanzees?" in "Language" and Intelligence in Monkeys and Apes: Comparative Developmental Perspectives ed. S. Parker, K. Bibson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 274–311
29. ^ Michael Tmoasello 1996 "Do Apes Ape?" in Social Learning in Animals: The Roots of Culture ed. C. Heyes and B. Galef. New York: Academic Press, pp. 319–346
30. ^ ab Nagell, K., Olguin K. and Tomasello M. 1993 "Processes of social learning in the tool use of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and human children (Homo sapiens)" in Journal of Comparative Psychology 107: 174–186
31. ^ S. Kawamura 1959 "The process of subcultural propagation among Japanese macaques" Primates 2: 43–60
32. ^ ab M. Kawai 1965 "Newly acquired pre-cultural behairo of the natural troop of Japanese monkeys on Koshima Islet Primates 6: 1–30
33. ^ E. Visalberghi and D.M. Fragaszy 1990 "Food washing behavior in tufted Capuchin monkeys, Cebusapella, and crabeating macaques, Macaca fasciculais " Animal Behavior 40: 829–836
34. ^ Michael Tomasello 1999, p. 519.
35. ^ Michael Tomasello 1996 "Do Apes Ape?" in Social Learning in Animals: The Roots of Culture ed. C. Heyes and B. Galef. New York: Academic Press. pp: 319–346
36. ^ Michael Tomasello 1999, p. 513.
37. ^ R. Bakerman and L. Adamson 1984 "Coordinating attention to people and objects in mother-infant and peer-infant interaction" in Child Development 55: 1278–1289
38. ^ C. Moore and P. Dunham 1995 Joint Attention: Its Origins and Role in Development. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Press.
39. ^ M. Tomasello 1995 "Joint attention as social cognition" in Joint Attention: Its Origins and Role in Development, ed. C. Moore and P. Dunham. Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum Press, pp. 103–130
40. ^ W. C. Meltzoff 1988 "Infant imitation after a one-week delay: long term memory for novel acts and multiple stimuli" in Developmental Psychology 24: 470–476
41. ^ M. Carpenter, N. Akhtar, M. Tomasello 1998 "Sixteen-month old infants differentially imitate intentional and accidental actions" in Infant behavioral Development 21: 315–330
42. ^ A. Meltzoff 1995 "Understanding the intentions of others: re-enactment of intended acts by 18-month-old children" in Developmental Psychology 31: 838–850
43. ^ Michael Tomasello 1999, p. 514.
44. ^ Michael Tomasello 1999, p. 515.
45. ^ Tomasello, M., Kruger, A. & Ratner, H. 1993 "Cultural learning" Behavioral and Brain Sciences 16, 495–552
46. ^ ab Michael Tomasello 1999, p. 516.
47. ^ Michael Tomasello 1999, p. 520–521.
48. ^ Brown 1999
49. ^ M. Tomasello and M. Barton 1994 "Learning Words in non-Ostensive Contexts" Developmental Psychology 30: 639–650
50. ^ N. Akhtar and M. Tomasello 1996 "Twenty-four month old children learn words for absent objects and actions" in British Journal of Developmental Psychology 14: 79–93
51. ^ M. Tomasello R. Strosberg, N. Akhtar 1996 "Eighteen-month old children learn words in non-ostensive contexts" in Journal of Child Language 23: 157–176
52. ^ ab Ralph L. Holloway Jr. 1969, p. 395.
53. ^ Ralph L. Holloway Jr. 1969, p. 396.
54. ^ Ralph L. Holloway Jr. 1969, p. 400.
55. ^ ab Ralph L. Holloway Jr. 1969, p. 401.
56. ^ ab Ralph L. Holloway Jr. 1969, p. 399.
57. ^ C.F. Hockett and R. Ascher 1964 "The Human Revolution" in Current Anthropology 4: 135–168.
58. ^ Michael Tomasello 1999, p. 517.
59. ^ Ralph L. Holloway Jr. 1969, p. 402.
60. ^ Ralph L. Holloway Jr. 1969, p. 406.
61. ^ Terrence Deacon 1997, p. 322.
62. ^ Terrence Deacon 1997, p. 344.
63. ^ Terrence Deacon 1997, p. 340.
64. ^ Terrence Deacon 1997, p. 347.
65. ^ Terrence Deacon 1997, pp. 384–385.
66. ^ Terrence Deacon 1997, p. 386.
67. ^ Terrence Deacon 1997, p. 386–387.
68. ^ Terrence Deacon 1997, p. 388.
69. ^ Terrence Deacon 1997, pp. 396–397.
70. ^ Terrence Deacon 1997, pp. 397–401.
71. ^ V. Gordon Childe 1929 The Danube in Prehistory Oxford: Clarendon Press
72. ^ By R. Lee Lyman and Michael J. O'Brien, 2003 W.C. McKern and the Midwestern Taxonomic Method. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa
73. ^ Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn, 2008 Archeology: Theories, Methods and Practice Fifth edition. New York: Thames and Hudson. p. 470
74. ^ Walter Taylor 1948, p. 96.
75. ^ Walter Taylor 1948, p. 100.
76. ^ Patty Jo Watson 1995 "Archeology, Anthropology, and the Culture Concept" in American Anthropologist 97(4) p.685
77. ^ Robert Dunnel 1986 "Five Decades of American Archeology" in American Archeology past and Future: A Celebration of the Society for American Archeology, 1935–1985. D. Meltzer and J. Sabloff, eds. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. p.36
78. ^ Lewish Binford 1962 "Archeology as Anthropology" in American Antiquity 28(2):218; see White 1959 The Evolution of Culture New York:McGraw Hill p.8
79. ^ Lewish Binford 1962 "Archeology as Anthropology" in American Antiquity 28(2):218; see Steward 1955 Theory of Culture Change. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.
80. ^ Patty Jo Watson 1995 "Archeology, Anthropology, and the Culture Concept" in American Anthropologist 97(4) p.684
81. ^ Patty Jo Watson 1995 "Archeology, Anthropology, and the Culture Concept" in American Anthropologist 97(4) pp. 687–6874
82. ^ Ian Hodder 1982 Symbols in action: ethnoarchaeological studies of material culture Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
83. ^ Ian Hodder 1986 Reading the past: current approaches to interpretation in archaeology Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
84. ^ Baepler, Paul. 2003. "White slaves, African masters." The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 588(1): 90–111. p. 91
85. ^ Votruba, Martin. "Herder on Language". Slovak Studies Program. University of Pittsburgh.
86. ^ Quoted in Anderson, Benedict R.O'G. 1983. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso.
87. ^ Sapir 1921:228
88. ^ Sapir 1995: 59
89. ^ e.g. Von Humbolt, Wilhelm. 1820. Über das vergleichende Sprachstudium in Beziehung auf die verschiedenen Epochen der Sprachentwicklung.
90. ^ Whorf 1941.
91. ^ Whorf 1941, p. 293.
92. ^ See also e.g. Boas, Franz. 1911. "Introduction." Handbook of American Indian Languages. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology.
93. ^ (Duranti 1997: 49)(Mannheim & Tedlock 1995: 2)
94. ^ Clancy, Patricia. (1986) "The acquisition of communicative style in Japanese." In B. Schieffelin and E. Ochs (eds) Language Socialization across Cultures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
95. ^ ab Foley 1997 p??
96. ^ Men's and Women's Speech in Koasati, Mary R. Haas, Language, Vol. 20, No. 3 (Jul. – Sep., 1944), pp. 142–149 (also summarized in Foley 1997)
97. ^ Tylor, E.B. 1874. Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom.
98. ^ A. L. Kroeber 1917 "The Superorganic" American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 19, No. 2 pp. 163–213.
99. ^ Gerald Weiss 1973 "A Scientific Concept of Culture" in American Anthropologist 75(5): 1382
100. ^ Franz Boas 1940 [1920] "The Methods of Ethnology", in Race, Language and Culture ed. George Stocking. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 284.
101. ^ Franz Boas 1940 [1932] "The Aims of Anthropological Research", in Race, Language and Culture ed. George Stocking. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 253
102. ^ Kroeber, Alfred L., 1948, Anthropology: Race, Language, Culture, Psychology, Prehistory revised edition. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc. p. 261
103. ^ Franz Boas 1907 "Anthropology" in A Franz Boas Reader: The Shaping of American Anthropology 1883–1911 ed. George Stocking Jr. 267–382
104. ^ Boas, Franz 1920 "The Methods of Ethnology" in Race, Language, and Culture. ed. George Stocking Jr. 1940 Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. pp. 281–289
105. ^ Boas, Franz 1909 "Decorative Designs in Alaskan Needlecases: A Study in the History of Conventional designs Based on Materials in the U.S. National Museum" in Race, Language, and Culture. ed. George Stocking Jr. 1940 Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. pp. 564–592
106. ^ Wissler, Clark (ed.) (1975) Societies of the Plains Indians AMS Press, New York, ISBN 0-404-11918-2, Reprint of v. 11 of Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History, published in 13 pts. from 1912 to 1916.
107. ^ Kroeber, Alfred L. (1939) Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
108. ^ Dyk, Walter 1938 Left Handed, Son of Old Man Hat, by Walter Dyk. Lincoln: The University of Nebraska Press.
109. ^ Lewis, Oscar 1961 The Children of Sanchez. New York: Vintage Books.
110. ^ Lewis, Oscar 1964 Pedro Martinez. New York: Random House.
111. ^ Mintz, Sidney 1960 Worker in the Cane: A Puerto Rican Life History. Yale Caribbean Series, vol. 2. New Haven: Yale University Press.
112. ^ Radin, Paul 1913 "Personal Reminiscences of a Winnebago Indian," in Journal of American Folklore 26: 293–318
113. ^ Radin, Paul 1963 The Autobiography of a Winnebago Indian. New York: Dover Publications
114. ^ Sapir, Edward 1922 "Sayach'apis, a Nootka Trader" in Elsie Clews Parsons, American Indian Life. New York: B.W. Huebesh.
115. ^ Simmons, Leo, ed. 1942 Sun Chief: The Autobiography of a Hopi Indian. New Haven: Yale University Press.
116. ^ Benedict 1934.
117. ^ Benedict, Ruth. The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture. Rutland, VT and Tokyo, Japan: Charles E. Tuttle Co. 1954 orig. 1946.
118. ^ Margaret Mead 1928 Coming of Age in Samoa
119. ^ Benedict 1934 pp.46–47
120. ^ Franz Boas 1940 [1932] "The Aims of Anthropological Research," in Race, Language and Culture ed. George Stocking. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 256
121. ^ Bashkow, Ira 2004 "A Neo-Boasian Conception of Cultural Boundaries" American Anthropologist 106(3): 446
122. ^ Benedict 1934 p. 48
123. ^ Benedict 1934 p. 49
124. ^ Ruth Benedict 1934 Patterns of Culture Boston: Houghton Miflin Company p. 52
125. ^ Benedict 1934 p. 47
126. ^ Benedict 1934 pp. 23–24
127. ^ Benedict 1934 p.46
128. ^ ab Benedict 1934 p.277
129. ^ Benedict 1934 p.271
130. ^ Murdock, George, 1949 Social Structure New York: The Macmillan Company
131. ^ Murdock, G. P. 1967. Ethnographic Atlas: A Summary. Pittsburgh: The University of Pittsburgh Press
132. ^ Murdock, G. P. 1981. Atlas of World Cultures. Pittsburgh: The University of Pittsburgh Press.
133. ^ Lévi-Strauss, Claude 1955 Tristes Tropiques Atheneum press
134. ^ Lévi-Strauss, Claude Mythologiques I-IV (trans. John Weightman and Doreen Weightman); Le Cru et le cuit (1964), The Raw and the Cooked (1969); Du miel aux cendres (1966), From Honey to Ashes (1973); L'Origine des manières de table (1968) The Origin of Table Manners 1978); 'L'Homme nu (1971) The Naked Man (1981)
135. ^ Structural-functionalism in Michael Rosenberg, Introduction to Sociology, Routledge, 1983
136. ^ Raymond Firth 1936 We the Tikopia: A Sociological Study of Kinship in Primitive Polynesia London Allen and Unwin
137. ^ Meyer Fortes and E.E. Evans Pritchard 1940. African Political Systems. London and New York: International African Institute.
138. ^ Bronisław Malinowski 1944 The Scientific Theory of Culture
139. ^ A.R. Radcliffe-Brown 1952 Structure and Function in Primitive Society
140. ^ a.R. Radcliffe-Brown 1957 A Natural Science of Society Glencoe: The Free Press p. 53
141. ^ Talcott Parsons 1937, The Structure of Social Action
142. ^ Talcott Parsons 1951, The Social System
143. ^ Eric Wolf 1980 "They Divide and Subdivide and Call it Anthropology." The New York Times November 30:E9.
144. ^ Ira Bashkow, 2004 "A Neo-Boasian Conception of Cultural Boundaries," American Anthropologist 106(3):445–446
145. ^ Appadurai, Arjun 1986 The Social Life of Things. (Edited) New York: Cambridge University Press.
146. ^ Appadurai, Arjun, 1996 Modernity at large: Cultural dimensions of globalization. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
147. ^ Gupta, Akhil, and James Ferguson, 1992, "Beyond 'Culture': Space, Identity, and the Politics of Difference," Cultural Anthropology 7(1): 6–23
148. ^ Marcus, George E. 1995 "Ethnography in/of the World System: The Emergence of Multi-Sited Ethnography." In Annual Review of Anthropology 24: 95–117
149. ^ Wolf, Eric 1982 Europe and the people without history. Berkeley: The University of California Press.
150. ^ Clifford Geertz 1973 The Interpretation of Cultures New York: Basic Books
151. ^ David Schneider 1968 American Kinship: A Cultural Account Chicago: University of Chicago press
152. ^ Roy Wagner 1980 American Kinship: A Cultural Account Chicago: University of Chicago Press
153. ^ Janet Dolgin, David Kemnitzer, and David Schneider, eds. Symbolic Anthropology: a Reader in the Study of Symbols and Meanings
154. ^ Victor Turner 1967 The Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual Ithaca:Cornell University Press
155. ^ White, L. 1949. The Science of Culture: A study of man and civilization.
156. ^ Richard A. Barrett 1989, "The Paradoxical Anthropology of Leslie White," American Anthropologist Vol. 91, No. 4 (Dec., 1989), pp. 986–999
157. ^ Leslie White, 1949 "Ethnological Theory." In Philosophy for the Future: The Quest of Modern Materialism. R. W. Sellars, V.J. McGill, and M. Farber, eds. Pp. 357–384. New York: Macmillan.
158. ^ Leslie White, 1943 "Energy and the Evolution of Culture." American Anthropologist 45: 339
159. ^ Julian Steward 1938 Basin Plateau Aboriginal Socio-political Groups (Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin, No 20)
160. ^ Julian Steward 1955 Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution University of Illinois Press
161. ^ Marvin Harris 1979 Cultural Materialism: The Struggle for a Science of Culture New York: Random House
162. ^ Marvin Harris 1977 Cannibals and Kings: Origins of Cultures New York: Vintage
163. ^ Marvin Harris 1974 Cows, Pigs, Wars, and Witches: The Riddles of Culture New York: Vintage
164. ^ Roy A. Rappaport 1967 Pigs for the Ancestors: Ritual in the Ecology of a New Guinea People
165. ^ Julian Steward, ed. 1966 The people of Puerto Rico: a study in social anthropology Chicago: University of Chicago Press (includes doctoral dissertations of Mintz and Wolf)
166. ^ Robert F. Murphy 1960 Headhunter's Heritage; Social and Economic Change Among the Mundurucu Indians
167. ^ Marshall Sahlins and Elman Service, '
168. ^ Elman R. Service 1962 Primitive social organization: an evolutionary perspective New York: Random House
169. ^ Andrew Peter Vayda, ed. 1969 Environment and cultural behavior: ecological studies in cultural anthropology Garden City: Natural History Press
170. ^ Dell Hymes 1969, p. 11.
171. ^ Dell Hymes 1969, p. 42.
172. ^ Dell Hymes 1969, p. 43.
173. ^ Sidney Mintz 1985 Sweetness and Power New York:Viking Press
174. ^ Robert Murphy 1971 The Dialectics of Social Life New York: Basic Books
175. ^ Marshall Sahlins 1976 Culture and Practical Reason Chicago: University of Chicago Press
176. ^ Eric Wolf 1971 Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century
177. ^ Eric Wolf, 1982 Europe and the People Without History Berkeley: University of California Press
178. ^ Mishkin, Bernard 1940 Rank and Warfare in Plains Indian Culture. Monographs of the American Ethnological Society no. 3. New York: J.J. Augustin.
179. ^ Lewis, Oscar 1942 The Effects of White Contact upon Blackfoot Culture, with Special Reference to the Role of the Fur Trade. Monographs of the American Ethnological Society no. 6. New York: J.J. Augustin.
180. ^ Jablow, Joseph 1951 The Cheyenne in Plains Indian Trade Relations, 1795–1972. American Ethnological Society Monograph 19. New York: J.J. Augustin.
181. ^ Secoy, Frank 1953 Changing Military Patterns on the Great Plains(17th Century through Early 19th Century). American Ethnological Society Monograph 21, New York: J.J. Augustin.
182. ^ Raymond Williams (1976) Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Rev. Ed. (NewYork: Oxford UP, 1983), pp. 87–93 and 236–8.
183. ^ John Berger, Peter Smith Pub. Inc., (1971) Ways of Seeing
184. ^ Bakhtin, Mikhail 1981. The Dialogic Imagination. Austin, TX: UT Press, p.4
185. ^ Lindlof & Taylor, 2002,p.60
186. ^ O'Neil, D. 2006. "Processes of Change".
187. ^ Pringle, H. 1998. The Slow Birth of Agriculture. Science 282: 1446.
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