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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
The British Isles is the geographical term for a group of about 5,000 islands off the north-west coast of mainland Europe between the latitudes 50°N and 61°N. The largest island is Britain or Great Britain, which is also the largest island in Europe. It consists of England, Wales and Scotland. The next largest island is Ireland, which is made up of Northern Ireland (or Ulster) and the Irish Republic (also known as Eire). Britain and Northern Ireland, together with a number of small islands, form the United Kingdom of Britain and Northern Ireland, more commonly known as the United Kingdom (which is almost 20 % smaller than Italy). In everyday usage, however. Great Britain or Britain is used to mean the United Kingdom. The Isle of Man, between Ireland and Britain, and the Channel Islands, off the north-west coast of France, though recognizing the Crown, have their own parliaments and are largely self-governing.
Great Britain is just under 1,000 km long and just under 500 km across in its widest part. The most mountainous region is Scotland (with Britain's highest peak, Ben Nevis — 1,343 m), which also has a wide lowland area between the Grampians and the Southern Uplands, where most of the large towns, including Edinburgh and Glasgow, and three-quarters of the population are located. Much of Wales is also mountainous and in England the Pennine Range (the ' backbone of England ') extends 224 km (although the highest peak is only 895 m high). The rest of England tends to be rather undulating, and not even the large agricultural plains of East Anglia are perfectly flat. In Ireland all the highland areas are around the edge, but there are no peaks over 1,100 m.
Rivers in Great Britain are quite short — the longest rivers are the Severn and the Thames — but their easy navigability has made them an important part of the inland transport network for the transportation of bulk products such as coal, iron ore and steel.
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
At the April 2001 UK Census, the United Kingdom's population was 58,789,194, the third largest in the European Union (behind Germany and France), the fifth largest in the Commonwealth and the twenty-first largest in the world. This had been estimated up to 60,587,300 by the Office for National Statistics in 2006. In August 2006 it was confirmed that the UK's population had reached 60 million, then rapidly increased to 60.2 million, largely from net immigration, but also because of a rising birth rate and increasing life expectancy.
The UK's overall population density is one of the highest in the world. About a quarter of the population lives in England's prosperous south-east and is predominantly urban and suburban, with an estimated 7,517,700 in the capital of London. The population of the United Kingdom has now reached 60,587,000 (mid 2006 estimate).
In 2006, the UK's total fertility rate (TFR) was 1.86 children per woman, below the replacement rate of 2.1. In 2001, the TFR was at a record low of 1.63, but it has increased each year since.
Located as they are on a group of islands close to Continental Europe, the lands now constituting the United Kingdom have historically been subject to many invasions and migrations, especially from Scandinavia and the continent — including Roman occupation for several centuries. Present day Britons are descended mainly from the varied ethnic stocks that settled there before the eleventh century. The pre-Celtic, Celtic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse influences were blended in Great Britain under the Normans, Scandinavian Vikings who had lived in northern France (Normandy). Since 1945, international ties forged by the British Empire have contributed to substantial immigration, especially from Africa and South Asia, and, most recently, the accession of new EU members in 2004 has fuelled more immigration from continental Europe. As of 2001, 13.1 % (5.2 % white, 7.9 % non-white) of the UK population identified themselves as an ethnic minority.
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Britain has a generally mild, temperate climate. The weather, however, tends to be very changeable (though not necessarily unpredictable) as a result of the constant influence of different air masses. The prevailing winds are south-westerly, which bring warm air in from across the Atlantic. There are few extremes in temperature, which rarely goes above 32 °C or below –10 °C. In summer, southern Britain is warmer than northern Britain because of its latitude, but in winter the North Atlantic Drift — a warm sea current — keeps the west milder than the east. Consequently Wales and the south-west peninsula have the most moderate climate and eastern England the most extreme. These differences are not great, however, and local variations arising from factors such as altitude and pollution are often greater. Annual rainfall is fairly evenly distributed, but ranges from more than 1,600 mm in the mountainous areas of the west and north to less than 800 mm over central and eastern parts. This is because depressions from the Atlantic bring frontal rainfall first to the west and because western Britain is higher and so gets more relief rain.
Cloud with a little rain will persist over south-eastern parts of England, but there will be sunny spells over much of the country. Showers will extend from the north west through western areas of Scotland and Northern Ireland. Some of these showers will be heavy and blustery on west-facing coasts. Temperatures will be quite mild for January, with a minimum of 7 degrees Celsius in northern Scotland and a maximum of 11 degrees Celsius in south-east England, but there will be a strong westerly wind with gales in the far south-west.
ECONOMY
The United Kingdom has the third largest economy in Europe after Germany and France.
The British economy has in recent years seen the longest period of sustained economic growth for more than 150 years, having grown in every quarter since 1992. It is one of the strongest EU economies in terms of inflation, interest rates and unemployment, all of which remain relatively low.
In October 2007, the IMF forecast British GDP to grow by 3.1 % in 2007 and 2.3 % in 2008.
Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanised, and efficient by European standards, producing about 60 % of food needs with less than 2 % of the labour force. It contributes around 2 % of GDP. Around two-thirds of the production is devoted to livestock, one-third to arable crops. The main crops that are grown are wheat, barley, oats, oilseed rape, maize for animal feeds, potatoes and sugar beet. New crops are also emerging, such as linseed for oil and hemp for fibre production. The main livestock which are raised are cattle, chickens (the UK is the second largest poultry producer in Europe after France) and sheep. Agriculture is subsidised by the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy.
Woodland covers an estimated 2.1 million hectares in Great Britain, but the rate of new planting — especially by private owners — is growing and home timber production is expected to double over the next 20 years (at present it provides only 10 % of the nation's requirements).
The UK retains a significant, although vastly reduced, fishing industry. Its fleets bring home fish ranging from sole to herring. Kingston upon Hull, Grimsby, Fleetwood, Great Yarmouth, Peterhead, Fraserburgh, and Lowestoft are among the coastal towns that have fishing industries.
In 2003, the manufacturing industry accounted for 16 % of national output in the UK and for 13 % of employment, according to the Office for National Statistics. This is a continuation of the steady decline in the importance of this sector to the British economy since the 1960s, although the sector is still important for overseas trade, accounting for 83 % of exports in 2003. The regions with the highest proportion of employees in manufacturing were the East Midlands and West Midlands (at 19 and 18 % respectively). London had the lowest at 6 %.
Engineering and allied industries comprise the single largest sector, contributing 30.8 % of total Gross Value Added in manufacturing in 2003. Within this sector, transport equipment was the largest contributor, with 8 global car manufacturers being present in the UK — BMW (MINI, Rolls-Royce), Ford (Premier Automotive Group), General Motors (Vauxhall Motors), Honda, Nissan, Toyota and Volkswagen (Bentley) with a number of smaller, specialist manufacturers (including Lotus and Morgan) and commercial vehicle manufacturers (including Leyland Trucks, LDV, Alexander Dennis, JCB, Manganese Bronze and Case-New Holland) also being present. A range of companies like Brush Traction manufacture railway locomotives and other related components.
Associated with this sector are the aerospace and defence equipment industries. The UK manufactures a broad range of equipment, with the sector being dominated by BAE Systems, which manufactures civil and defence aerospace, land and marine equipment, VT Group, GKN and Rolls Royce who manufacture aerospace engines and power generation systems.
Another important component of Engineering and allied industries is electronics, audio and optical equipment, with the UK having a broad base of domestic firms like Amstrad, Alba, ARM, Dyson, Glen Dimplex, Invensys, and Linn, alongside a number of foreign firms manufacturing a wide range of TV, radio and communications products, scientific and optical instruments, electrical machinery and office machinery and computers.
Chemicals and chemical-based products are another important contributor to the UK's manufacturing base. Within this sector, the pharmaceutical industry is particularly successful, with the world's second and third largest pharmaceutical firms (GlaxoSmithKline and AstraZeneca respectively) being based in the UK and having major research and development and manufacturing facilities there.
Other important sectors of the manufacturing industry include food, drink, tobacco, paper, printing, publishing and textiles. The UK is also home to three of the world's biggest brewing companies: Diageo, Sabmiller and Scottish and Newcastle, other major manufacturing companies such as Unilever, Cadbury Schweppes, Tate & Lyle, British American Tobacco, Imperial Tobacco, EMAP, HarperCollins, Reed Elsevier, Ben Sherman, Burberry, French Connection, Reebok, Pentland Group and Umbro being amongst the largest present.
The service sector is the dominant sector of the UK economy, a feature normally associated with the economy of a developed country.
London is Europe`s largest financial centre, with financial services based around two districts: 'The City' (the City of London) and the Docklands (particularly around Canary Wharf). The City houses the London Stock Exchange (shares and bonds), Lloyds of London (insurance), and the Bank of England. The Docklands began development in the 1980s and is now home to the Financial Services Authority, as well as several important financial institutions (such as Barclays Bank, Citigroup and HSBC). There are now over 500 banks with offices in the City and Docklands, with the majority of business in London being conducted on an international basis, with established leads in areas such as Eurobonds, Foreign exchange markets, energy futures and global insurance. The Alternative Investments Market has acted a growth market over the past decade, allowing London to also expand as an international equity centre for smaller firms.
Energy and Natural Resources
Offshore natural gas, which is distributed through 5,600 km of high-pressure pipelines, is used by industries which require a fine degree of accuracy, but, because it is easily transportable, it has not created industrial areas in the way coal did. About half of the national consumption is used for industrial and commercial purposes, and the remainder for household use. The industry was sold back to the private sector as British Gas Pie in 1986.
Britain is the world's fifth largest oil producer and, although production is expected to start declining slowly, Britain should remain a significant producer in the twenty-first century. About 80 % of offshore production is brought ashore by submarine pipeline to one of the 14 refineries. There are also a series of onshore pipelines which carry refined products to major marketing areas.
The main consumers of Britain's declining coal industry, which still has considerable reserves, are the thermal power stations, which in 1988 accounted for 73 % of total consumption to produce roughly one-third of Britain's electricity. Only 10 % was used by domestic users.
Britain was the first country in the world to have a public supply of electricity, but at the time of writing the industry is in the process of being privatized. The Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB), which was responsible for generating electricity in England and Wales and for maintaining the national grid, has been split into three companies: PowerGen, National Power, and a national grid company. The twelve regional electricity boards, which are responsible for the distribution and sales of electricity, are being privatized as twelve supply companies. A similar process is happening in Scotland and Northern Ireland. In 1988 domestic users accounted for 35 % of the electricity sold, industry 36 %, and commercial and other users the rest.
Transport and Communications
Freight traffic in Britain is carried mainly by road. 82 % of the tonnage of inland freight is carried on the roads. The car is also the most popular form of passenger transport, with car and taxi travel accounting for some 82 % of passenger mileage within Britain. Railways, inland waterways, coastal shipping and pipelines are important in carrying certain types of freight, particularly bulk goods.
Roads
Less than 1 % of Britain's roads are motorways (which are free in Britain), although they carry nearly 13 % of traffic including 16 % of heavy goods vehicle traffic. Indeed, the network of motorways is inadequate for the volume of traffic and there are terrible congestion problems, especially in and around London.
Railways
Britain had the world's first public passenger railway service (opened in 1825). The various regional railways that developed were nationalized in 1947 and the passenger network now comprises a fast inter-city network (up to 200 km per hour) linking the main centres of Great Britain; local stopping services; and commuter services in and around large conurbations, especially London. The main freight carried by train is coal, steel and other bulk goods.
Ports and air traffic
Almost two-thirds of the traffic through the ports is in fuels (mainly petroleum and petroleum products). Traditional major ports like London, Liverpool and Manchester, have lost general (non-bulk) cargo traffic to ports like Dover and Felixstowe, which have developed specialized facilities to meet a world-wide switch from conventional handling methods to container and roll-on modes. Ports on the south and east coasts have also gained traffic as Britain's trade has switched towards the continent of Europe.
94.6 million passengers travelled by air to or from Britain in 1988, while the value of overseas trade carried by air was approximately 21.5 % of the value of exports and 16.8 % of imports. London's two airports, Heathrow and Gatwick, are the world's two busiest airports, mainly as a result of their geographical position.
HIGHER EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN
There is a considerable choice of post-school education in Britain. In addition touniversities, there are also polytechnics and a series of different types of assisted colleges, such as colleges of technology, art, etc, which tend to provide more work-orientated courses than universities. Some of these courses are part-time, with the students being released by their employers for one day a week or longer periods. Virtually all students on full-time courses receive grants or loans from the Government which cover their tuition fees and everyday expenses (accommodation, food, books, etc).
Universities in Britain enjoy complete academic freedom, choosing their own staff and deciding which students to admit, what and how to teach, and which degrees to award (first degrees are calledBachelor degrees). They are mainly government-funded, except for the totally-independent University of Buckingham.
There is no automatic admission to university, as there are only a limited number of places (around 100,000) available each year. Candidates are accepted on the basis of their A-level results. Virtually all degree courses are full-time and most last three years (medical and veterinary courses last five or six years). Students who obtain their Bachelor degree (graduates) can apply to take a further degree course, usually involving a mixture of exam courses and research. There are two different types of post-graduate courses — the master's degree (MA or MSc), which takes one or two years, and the higher degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), which takes two or three years.
Text 2. SOME FACTS ABOUT THE UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA
The United States of America is a federal republic of 50 states. There are 48 conterminous states which extend from latitude 25°N to 50°N and longitude 125°W to 67°W (4,500 km and four time zones from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific coast); the other two states, Hawaii and Alaska, are situated respectively in the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean (160°W, 3,200 km from the mainland) and near the Arctic circle. The 50 states form anarea of 3,615,122 square miles (31 times the size of Italy), making the United States the fourth largest country in the world.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
The country naturally presents a tremendousvariety in physical features (and climate), ranging from moist rain forest to arid desert and bald mountain peaks. Mount McKinley in Alaska at 20,320 feet (6,194 metres) is the highest point in the United States, while part of Death Valley in California is 282 feet (89 metres) below sea level.
The eastern coast of the United States is a long, gently rolling lowland area known asthe coastal plains. These coastal plains, which stretch from Maine to Texas, are very flat (nowhere in Florida is more than 350 feet above sea level, for example) and often swampy. In general the soil is very poor, except in the fertile southern part, where the plain reaches many miles inland (the Cotton Belt of the Old South and the citrus country of central Florida).
At the western edge of the Atlantic coastal plain, there is a chain of low, almost unbroken mountains, stretching from the northern part of Maine southwest into Alabama, called the Appalachian Mountains. These mountains contain enormous quantities of easily accessible coal and iron (which helps explain the huge concentration of heavy industry along the lower region of the Great Lakes). The Piedmont hills, to the east of the main peaks, are the most highly productive agricultural land in the country after the Midwest.
The heart of the United States is a vast plain, broken by the Superior Upland and Black Hills in the north and the Ozark Plateau in the south, which extends from central Canada southwards to Mexico and from the Appalachian Mountains westwards to the Cordillera. Theseinterior plains, which rise gradually like a saucer to higher land on all sides, are divided into two major parts: the wetter, eastern portion is called the Central Plains and the western portion the Great Plains, both of which have good soil.
To the west of the Great Plains is the Cordillera, which accounts for one-third of the United States. It is a region of tremendous variety, which can be sub-divided into various other regions. On its eastern border the Rocky Mountains, a high, discontinuous chain of mountains stretching from mountainous Alaska down to Mexico, rise sharply from the Great Plains. These rugged mountains contain many important metals such as lead, uranium and gold.
The western edge of the Cordillera is characterized by a coastal chain of high mountains, among which there are broad, fertile valleys. The most important ranges are the Sierra Nevada and the Cascades in the eastern part and the Coastal Ranges along the western coast. There is no Pacific coastal plain and between these two sets of mountains there is a large plateau region, with steep cliffs and canyons, basins and isolated ranges. Many basins are rich in resources such as oil and natural gas.
Hawaii is a chain of twenty islands, only seven of which are inhabited. The mountainous islands were formed by volcanic activity and there are still a number of active volcanoes.
The United States has several immensely long rivers. There are a large number of rivers in the eastern part of the nation, the longest of which is the Missouri (3,942 km), a tributary of the Mississippi (3,760 km); the Mississippi-Missouri-Red Rock system extends for 6,176 km before entering the Gulf of Mexico near New Orleans. Two other tributaries of the Mississippi — the Ohio and Tennessee — are more than 1,250 km long. In the West the Rio Grande, which forms part of the United States-Mexico border, flows for 3,016 km and only the Colorado (2,320 km), Columbia (2,240 km) and theSan Joaquim-Sacramento river systems reach the Pacific.
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
On October 17, 2006, the United States population was estimated by the U. S. Census Bureau to be 300,000,000. The U. S. population included an estimated 12 million unauthorized migrants, of whom an estimated 1 million were uncounted by the Census Bureau. The overall growth rate is 0.89 %, compared to 0.16 % in the European Union. The birth rate of 14.16 per 1,000 is 30 % below the world average, while higher than any European country except for Albania and Ireland. In 2006, 1.27 million immigrants were granted legal residence. Mexico has been the leading source of new U. S. residents for over two decades; since 1998, China, India, and the Philippines have been in the top four sending countries every year.
The United States has a very diverse population — thirty-one ancestry groups have more than a million members. Whites are the largest racial group, with German Americans, Irish Americans, and English Americans constituting three of the country's four largest ancestry groups. African Americans, mostly descendants of former slaves, constitute the nation's largest racial minority and third largest ancestry group. Asian Americans are the country's second largest racial minority; the two largest Asian American ancestry groups are Chinese and Filipino. In 2005, the U. S. population included an estimated 4.5 million people with some Native American or Alaskan native ancestry (2.4 million exclusively of such ancestry) and nearly 1 million with some native Hawaiian or Pacific island ancestry (0.4 million exclusively).
Race/Ethnicity (2005)
White 73.9 %
African American 12.4 %
Asian 4.4 %
Native American and Alaskan Native 0.8 %
Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander 0.1 %
Other/multiracial 8.3 %
Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 14.8 %
Hispanic American population growth is a major demographic trend. The approximately 44 million Americans of Hispanic descent constitute the largest ethnic minority in the country. About 64 % of Hispanic Americans are of Mexican descent. Between 2000 and 2004, the country's Hispanic population increased 14 % while the non-Hispanic population rose just 2 %. Much of this growth is due to immigration: As of 2004, 12 % of the U. S. population was foreign-born, over half that number from Latin America. Fertility is also a factor: The average Hispanic woman gives birth to three children in her lifetime. The comparable fertility rate is 2.2 for non-Hispanic black women and 1.8 for non-Hispanic white women (below the replacement rate of 2.1). Hispanics accounted for nearly half of the national population growth of 2.9 million between July 2005 and July 2006. It is estimated on the basis of current trends that by 2050 whites of non-Hispanic origin will be 50.1 % of the U. S. population, compared to 69.4 % in 2000. They are currently less than half the population in four «majority-minority states» — California, New Mexico, Hawaii, and Texas — as well as the District of Columbia.
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Virtually every type of climate can be found somewhere in the United States — from arctic in Alaska to subtropical in Florida. The climate is not generally temperate, despite the latitude, as the tremendous size of the North American landmass heightens the extreme variations in temperature and precipitation, especially in the central regions (in Dakota temperatures have reached a maximum of 49 °C and a minimum of –60 °C).
Most of the country has ahumid continental climate with hot summers and cold winters, while the lack of natural barriers either to the north or the south allows cold, dry air to flow south from Canada and warm, humid air north from the Gulf of Mexico, giving rise to spectacular weather of every possible type in the Great Plains and Midwest. Summers are hot and very humid in this region and rainfall decreases to the west as a result of the rain shadow created by the West Pacific range and the Sierra Nevada. The southwest portion of the Great Plains is the hottest and most arid region of the United States, with precipitation, mostly in the form of summer showers, averaging less than 250 mm a year.
The Pacific coast is almost rainless in the summer, although there is often fog. In the winter there is frequent drizzle, but the climate remains generally warm and dry, especially in California. The eastern part of the country is moderately rainy, with the precipitation fairly well distributed throughout the year. Summers tend to be extremely humid, specially along the coast of Texas and Florida.
THE U. S. ECONOMY
The United States has a capitalist mixed economy, which is fueled by abundant natural resources, a well-developed infrastructure, and high productivity. According to the International Monetary Fund, the United States GDP of more than $13 trillion constitutes over 19 % of the gross world product. The largest national GDP in the world, it was slightly less than the combined GDP of the European Union at purchasing power parity in 2006. The country ranks eighth in the world in nominal GDP per capita and fourth in GDP per capita at purchasing power parity. The United States is the largest importer of goods and second largest exporter. Canada, China, Mexico, Japan, and Germany are its top trading partners. The leading export commodity is electrical machinery, while vehicles constitute the leading import. The national debt is the world's largest; in 2005, it was 23 % of the global total. As a percentage of GDP, U. S. debt ranked thirtieth out of 120 countries for which data is available.
The private sector constitutes the bulk of the economy, with government activity accounting for 12.4 % of the GDP. The economy is postindustrial, with the service sector contributing over 75 % of GDP. The leading business field by gross business receipts is wholesale and retail trade; by net income it is finance and insurance.
The United States remains an industrial power, with chemical products the leading manufacturing field. The United States is the third largest producer of oil in the world, and its largest consumer. It is the world's number one producer of electrical and nuclear energy, as well as liquid natural gas, aluminum, sulfur, phosphates, and salt. Agriculture accounts for only 1 % of GDP but 60 % of the world's agricultural production. Coca-Cola and McDonald's are the two most recognized brands in the world.
Natural Resources
The United States possesses vast non-fuel natural resources. The major resource is iron, three-quarters of which comes from the Lake Superior region of the Great Lakes. Other basic metals and minerals mined on a large scale are zinc, copper, silver and phosphate rock (used for fertilizers). This wealth is distributed throughout most of the country, but Texas and the West (especially California) are the most important mineral-producing areas. Mining and quarrying account for only about 2 % of GNP.
The United States produces one-quarter of the world's coal and one-seventh of its petroleum, with sufficient coal reserves to last for hundreds of years. About half of the nation's electric power comes from coal-fired power stations, while natural and manufactured gas supply more than 33 % of the nation's power. The main gas fields are found near the main oil fields in Texas, Louisiana and Alaska. Nuclear power is also used in many places, using uranium mined in New Mexico and Wyoming, and produces over 10 % of the nation's energy output.
Transport and Communications
The vast network of rivers andlakes in the eastern part of the United States have been of great importance to the economic development of the nation. The Mississippi and its tributaries are all easily navigable and the five Great Lakes, four of which are shared with Canada, are linked to this system by a series of canals. These waterways, together with pipelines and railways, are important for the transport of bulk freight.
By the late 1860s it was already possible to travel from the Atlantic Coast to the Pacific Coast by rail and there is now a vastrailway network extending over almost the entire country. Railway transport has been largely replaced by air transport for long-distance passenger travel, as there is a highly developed network of airline services connecting most towns of importance (and it costs less to travel by air than by train even on comparatively short journeys). Railways are still important for the carriage of certain types of freight, however.
Cars and trucks are the most important means of transport for both passengers and goods, and an interstate highway system has been built which provides a route to nearly every major city. On many of these roads a toll has to be paid and the top speed limit anywhere is 55 mph.
HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES
There are about 3,000 colleges and universities, both private and public, in the United States. They are all independent, offering their own choice of studies, setting their own admission standards and deciding which students meet those standards. The greater the prestige of the university, the higher the credits and grades required.
The terms 'college' and 'university' are often used interchangeably, as 'college' is used to refer to allundergraduate education and the four-year undergraduate programme, leading to a bachelor's degree, can be followed at either college or university. Universities tend to be larger than colleges and also have graduate schools where students can receive post-graduate education. Advanced or graduate university degrees include law and medicine.
During the first two years students usually follow general courses in the arts or sciences and then choose a major (the subject or area of studies in which they concentrate — the other subjects are called minors). Credits (with grades) are awarded for the successful completion of each course. These credits are often transferable, so students who have not done well in high school can choose a junior college (or community college), which offers a two-year 'transfer' programme, preparing students for degree-granting institutions. Community colleges also offer two-year courses of a vocational nature, leading to technical and semi-professional occupations, such as journalism.
Nearly half of all people aged nineteen are in full-time education, but only half of these successfully complete full four-year courses for bachelors' degrees. Some attend junior colleges with two-year courses (from which they may transfer); most start full four-year degree courses. Most students receive federal loans to cover part of the cost of their studies; much smaller numbers receive federal grants, or scholarships or bursaries from other sources. Virtually all pay part of their costs themselves, from family contributions or from part-time work or both.
Most students aiming at bachelors' degrees take the four years (freshman, sophomore, junior and senior) consecutively at the same institution, but some interrupt their courses. Some start late in life and may spread their courses over several years. For each stage of the course it is necessary to gain adequate average grades over a number of courses, and credits gained at one stage can be accepted for a later stage after an interval, if necessary with change from one institution to another. For the freshman year, courses usually cover a wide range, and with each later year there is scope for more specialisation. Essentially, the system by which a person becomes a college graduate is a progression from that which makes him or her a high school graduate.
About one-fifth of college graduates continue with studies for masters' or doctors' degrees, in their own major subjects or for professional qualifications in law, medicine, business, etc., which involve two to four postgraduate years. Postgraduate schools admit students on the basis of their grades in bachelors' degree studies, and require minimum-level passes in appropriate preparatory subjects.
Most college students are in 'public' institutions, a minority in 'private' ones. Every state has its own full university system, and in a big state there are many separate state campuses, general and special, at different levels. In terms of research output, and of Nobel prizes won by academic staff, the most prestigious is the University of California at Berkeley (across the bay from San Francisco). It, and the University's campus at Los Angeles, are the two major institutions in the California state system, but there are many dozens of other campuses in that system. Other states have parallel systems, often with one principal campus, with up to 50,000 students, in a small town in which the university is the main focus of activity. Most big cities have their own city-funded universities — in some cases with several campuses — often separate from the state system. In general state and city colleges now charge tuition fees which cover a minor part of their costs, at least for state or local residents — though students from other states pay several times as much.
The oldest, and in some ways the most prestigious, colleges are private, funded partly from their endowments, partly by contributions from business and, above all, former students. A few receive some state or city grants as well. But in general they need to charge high fees for tuition, averaging about five times the rates charged by equivalent state colleges for local residents.
Some of the best-known private universities are the oldest ones in the Northeast, known informally as the Ivy League. These include Harvard, Yale and Princeton. The research carried on at Harvard and at its newer neighbour in Cambridge, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has contributed to the prosperity of the Boston area, though other private and public universities nearby also have some share in this development.
These colleges are all quite small, but there are also the yet smaller institutions of the Little Ivy League, as well as many hundreds of other private colleges all over the United States. Their variety is extreme. Some students prefer a small college for the sake of the closer contact with the professors than in the state colleges, some for religious or other reasons. But some of their graduates go on to state university postgraduate courses.
The individual young person knows that his or her prospects of success in life depend on education more than on any other single factor. So there is an ever-increasing demand for educational opportunities. At the same time, it is generally recognised that even from the material point of view, economic development up till now has owed much to the skills and abilities which grow through education, and for the traditional Americans, respect for learning is reinforced by a doctrine that it is an investment that brings the community an economic return as well as social and cultural improvement.
Text 3. WHAT IS ECTS?
The European Community promotes co-operation between universities as a means of improving the quality of education for the benefit of students and higher education institutions, and student mobility is an important element of that inter-university co-operation. The Erasmus programme clearly demonstrates that studying abroad can be a particularly valuable experience as it is not only the best way to learn about other countries, ideas, languages and cultures; increasingly it is also an important element in academic and professional career development.
The recognition of studies and diplomas is a prerequisite for the creation of an Open European area of education and training where students and teachers can move without obstacles. That is why the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) was developed in a pilot scheme established within the Erasmus programme as a means of improving academic recognition for study abroad. The external evaluation of ECTS has demonstrated the potential of the system and the European Commission has decided to include ECTS in its proposal for the Socrates programme on higher education (Erasmus). ECTS provides an instrument to create transparency, to build bridges between institutions and to widen the choices available to students. The system makes it easier for institutions to recognise the learning achievements of students through the use of commonly understood measurements — credits and grades — and it also provides a means to interpret national systems of higher education.
Main characteristics of ECTS
The ECTS system is based on three core elements: information (on study programmes and student achievement), mutual agreement (between the partner institutions and the student) and the use of ECTS credits (to indicate student workload). These three core elements are made operational through the use of three key documents: the information package, the learning agreement and the transcript of records. Most of all, ECTS is made operational by students, teachers and institutions who want to make study abroad an integral part of the educational experience. In itself, ECTS in no way regulates the content, structure or equivalence of study programmes. These are issues of quality which have to be determined by the higher education institutions themselves when establishing a satisfactory basis for co-operation agreement, bilaterally or multilaterally. The code of good practice called ECTS provides those actors with tools to create transparency and to facilitate academic recognition.
Full academic recognition means that the study period abroad (including examinations or other form of assessment) replaces a comparable period of study at the home university (including examinations or other forms of assessment), though the content of the agreed study programme may differ.
The use of ECTS is voluntary and is based on mutual trust and confidence in the academic performance of partner institutions. Each institution selects its own partners. ECTS provides transparency through the following means:
■ ECTS credits which are a numerical value allocated to course units to describe the student workload required to complete them (see below);
■ The learning agreement covering the programme of study to be taken and the ECTS credits to be awarded for their satisfactory completion, committing both home and host institutions, as well as the studtent (see below).
■ The transcript of records which shows students' learning achievements in a way which is comprehensive, commonly understood and easily transferable from one institution to another (see below);
■ The information package which supplies written information to students and staff on the institution's departments/faculties, the organisation and structure of studies and course units (see below);
Good communication and flexibility are also needed to facilitate the academic recognition of studies completed or taken abroad. In this respect the ECTS co-ordinators have an important role to play as their main tasks are to deal with the academic and administrative aspects of ECTS.
The courses offered to exchange students must be part of the regular educational programme at the institution — no courses should be specifically designed for them.
ECTS also provides possibilities for continued education abroad. With ECTS, the student will not necessarily go back to the home institution after the study period abroad; he/she may prefer to stay at the host institution — possibly to gain a degree — or even move to a third institution. The institutions themselves decide whether or not this is acceptable and what conditions the student must fulfill to obtain a diploma or transfer registration. The transcript of records is particularly useful in this context as it provides a history of the student's academic achievements.
ECTS Credits
ECTS credits are a numerical value (between 1 and 60) allocated to courses to describe the required student workload, that is, lectures, practical work, seminars, tutorials, fieldwork, private study — in the library or at home — and examinations or other assessment activities. The ECTS credits are thus based on a full student workload and not limited to contact hours only.
ECTS credits are a relative rather than an absolute measure of student workload. They reflect the quantity of work each course requires in relation to the total quantity of work necessary to complete a full year of academic study at the institution.
In ECTS, 60 credits represent the workload of a normal undergraduate academic year of study.
ECTS Grading
Examination and assessment results are usually expressed in grades. As different countries have different grading systems, the ECTS grading scale has been developed. It provides additional information on the quality of the student's performance to that provided by the institution's own grading system, but does not replace the local grade.
| ECTS | grade | Percentage of students |
| A | Excellent | 10 % |
| В | Very Good | 25 % |
| С | Good | 30 % |
| D | Satisfactory | 25 % |
| E | Sufficient | 10 % |
| F/FX | Fail |
Student Application Form and Learning Agreement
Prior to consulting with the ECTS co-ordinator at the home institution, the prospective exchange student is advised to complete the Application Form provisionally. This can serve as a basis for discussions about the curriculum to be followed during the study-abroad visit. The student and the ECTS co-ordinator will sign the Application Form and the Learning Agreement and forward them together with a transcript of records to the coordinator of the host institution for approval. If necessary, adjustments will be made to the curriculum, but they have to be accepted and signed by the student and the co-ordinator on the Learning Agreement form.
Transcript of Records
Upon completion of a study-abroad visit each ECTS student will be supplied with a Transcript of Records by the host institution. This gives details of the studied courses, which should correspond to the curriculum recorded on the Learning Agreement. The Transcript will show the all ECTS credits and grades awarded for all courses studied.
ECTS Information Package
Each institution participating in ECTS must supply an information package to its partners to facilitate the planning of study abroad visits between the partners. The package should contain a summary of the ECTS scheme, general information about the host institution and country, and details of the courses available.
ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ
Новые возможности, открывающиеся для студентов и молодых специалистов в области студенческого обмена, стажировок и командировок, требуют владения иностранным языком, умения общаться. В соответствии с положениями Болонского процесса знание иностранных языков становится еще более актуальным. Изучение иностранного языка — дело непростое, но многое зависит от самого изучающего. Наше пособие поможет начать изучать английский язык начинающим и продолжать — продолжающим.
СПИСОК РЕКОМЕНДУЕМОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ
1. Our Institute = Наш институт [Текст]: метод. указ. для студентов первого и второго курсов всех специальностей и форм обучения / сост. Н. С. Асадуллина; Сыкт. лесн. ин-т. — Сыктывкар: СЛИ, 2005. — 40 с.
2. The world and us = Мир и мы [Текст]: метод. указ. для студентов первого и второго курсов всех специальностей очной и очно-заочной форм обучения / сост. Т. М. Карлова; Сыкт. лесн. ин-т. — Сыктывкар: СЛИ, 2002. — 32 с. — (Английский язык для студентов первого и второго курсов).
3. English grammar for technical students = Грамматика английского языка для студентов технического вуза [Текст]: учебное пособие для студентов всех специальностей и форм обучения / сост. Т. М. Карлова; Сыкт. лесн. ин-т. — Сыктывкар: СЛИ, 2004. — 176 с.
4. Man and his environment = Человек и окружающая среда [Текст]: учебное пособие для студентов всех специальностей и форм обучения / авт.-сост. М. А. Иванова, В. Н. Тарабукина; Сыкт. лесн. ин-т. — Сыктывкар: СЛИ, 2005. — 120 с. — (ESP: English for specific purpose).
СПИСОК ИСПОЛЬЗОВАННОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ
1. Республика Коми [Текст]: энцикл.: в 3 т: т. 1 / Коми НЦ УрО РАН. — Сыктывкар: Коми кн. изд-во, 1997. — 471 с.
2. Леса Республики Коми = Forests of the Komi Republic [Текст] / под ред. Г. М. Козубова, А. И. Таскаева. — М.: Дизайн. Информация. Картография, 1999. — 332 с.
3. Лесное хозяйство и лесные ресурсы Республики Коми = Forestry and forest resources of the Komi Republic [Текст] / под ред. Г. М. Козубова, А. И. Таскаева. — М.: Дизайн. Информация. Картография, 2000. — 512 с.
4. Плюхина, З. А.Английский язык для бухгалтеров и аудиторов [Текст]: учебник / З. А. Плюхина. — М.: ГИС, 2002. — 368 с.
5. Bromhead, P. Life in Modern America [Text] / P. Bromhead. — New York: Longman, 1992. — 180 p.
6. Garwood, Ch. Aspects of Britain and the USA [Text] / Ch. Garwood, G. Gardini, E. Peris. — Oxford: University Press, 1995. — 95 p.
7. Costinett, S. The Language of Accounting in English [Text] / S. Costinett. — Eaglewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall Regents, 1977. — 96 p.
8. Hall, E. J. The Language of Mechanical Engineering in English [Text] / E. J. Hall. — Eaglewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall Regents, 1977. — 102 p.
9. Pearson, M. On the European Edge — Journey Through Komi Nature and Culture [Text] / M. Pearson [et al.]. — Helsinki: University of Helsinki, 2007. — 216 p.
ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ. 3
Введение. 5
UNIT 1. 6
Text 1. OUR INSТITUTE. 6
Vocabulary notes. 7
VOCABULARY EXERCISES. 8
Text 2. SWEDISH UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES (SLU) 12
UNIT 2. 15
Text 1. THE KOMI REPUBLIC.. 15
Vocabulary notes. 16
VOCABULARY EXERCISES. 17
Text 2. GREAT BRITAIN.. 20
UNIT 3. 23
Text 1. OUR CITY.. 23
Vocabulary notes. 24
VOCABULARY EXERCISES. 25
Text 2. Washington, D. C. 28
UNIT 4. 31
Text 1. FORESTS AND FOREST RESOURCES. 31
Vocabulary notes. 32
VOCABULARY EXERCISES. 33
Text 2. RUSSIA’S FORESTS. 37
UNIT 5. 40
Text 1. MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT. 40
Vocabulary notes. 41
VOCABULARY EXERCISES. 42
Text 2. A BIO-SOLUTION TO GLOBAL WARMING?. 46
UNIT 6. 48
Text 1. THE ENGINEERING PROFESSION.. 48
Vocabulary notes. 49
VOCABULARY EXERCISES. 50
Text 2a. FORESTRY IS MY FUTURE PROFESSION.. 56
Text 2b. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES IS MY FUTURE PROFESSION.. 57
Text 2c. CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AS A PROFESSION.. 59
Text 2d. ACCOUNTANCY AS A PROFESSION.. 60
SUPPLEMENTARY TEXTS. 63
Text 1. SOME FACTS ABOUT GREAT BRITAIN.. 63
Text 2. SOME FACTS ABOUT THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.. 70
Text 3. WHAT IS ECTS?. 77
ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ. 81
СПИСОК РЕКОМЕНДУЕМОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ.. 82
СПИСОК ИСПОЛЬЗОВАННОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ.. 82
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Учебное издание
Карлова Татьяна Михайловна, кандидат филологических наук
THE WORLD AROUND US = МИР ВОКРУГ НАС
Учебное пособие для студентов первого и второго курсов всех специальностей
очной и очно-заочной форм обучения
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Сыктывкарский лесной институт — филиал государственного образовательного учреждения
высшего профессионального образования «Санкт-Петербургская государственная
лесотехническая академия имени С. М. Кирова» (СЛИ)
167982, г. Сыктывкар, ул. Ленина, 39
institut@sfi.komi.com, www.sli.komi.com
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