Essentials of Morphology

1. Classification of morphemes;
2. grammatical meaning & grammatical form;
3. grammatical oppositions & grammatical categories;
4. reduction of grammatical oppositions;

Item 1

The morpheme is a minimal meaningful unit of language (but it not a sign).

Nowhere – no | where + now | here

French | man (2 morphemes) – German (1 morpheme)

Homonymy of morphemes

Root (shipwreck)

Ship

Suffix (friendship)

Morphemes: principles of classification:

Type of meaning:

1. lexical (roots); work-, long.
2. lexico-grammatical (prefixes, derivational suffixes); - er -.
3. grammatical (inner & outer flections, grammatical suffixes); - s, -er.

Presence / absence of meaning:

1. full (presence of ANY type of meaning) work-, long-.
2. empty (only structural function, no meaning) child | r | en, re | join | d | er, sale | s | man.

Interaction with other morphemes:

1. additive (book + s);
2. substitutional (man = m … n (add.) + - a – (subst.); men = m … n + - e -).

Structure:

1. continuous (book + s);
2. discontinuous (a) m … n + - a -; b) has (visit) ed).

Degree of independence

1. free (only roots –if their form corresponds to the WORD) (visit-);
2. bound (all morphemes) (- ed).

Way of representation

1. segmental (= linear) (expressed by segmental phonetic means - phonemes) (all the examples above)
2. supersegmental (expressed by supersegmental means added to the linear structure of the word – a) stress, b) juncture, c) order of elements) (`import – im`port, annoys – a noise, outrun (v) – run out (n), in come (n) – come in).

Item 2

Linguistics is based on 2 types of meaning. Lexical meaning is individual, it denotes smth. It specifies this very word & relates it to other word with the same meaning.

A boy

A table

A lecture

Each of them has the lexical meaning of its own. Grammatical meaning – they are all nouns. Categorical meaning of substantivety. GM is more general. It unites big classes of words. All words of the same part of speech have the common categorical GM. Besides categorical M some specific GMs can be singled out in each part of speech. Nouns – case, number. Verbs – person, tense, voice, mood, aspect. Adjectives – degrees of comparison.

Any GM is expressed in some way. It can be an inflection (inner or outer), use of auxiliary verbs, suppletivism.

Grammatical form can be either synthetical or analytical. SFs consist of one element, & both grammatical & lexical meanings are expressed in it.

3 productive means

Inflection – morpheme added to the stem to change its form (pen – pens). Modern English has some particular features concerning inflections:

1. the number of inflections is limited;
2. there are many homonymous inflections (- ed);

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