Innovative approaches in methodology

Methodology of TEFL. Basic categories

The term “методика” has several correspondences in English: methodology, methods and methodics. In our course of lectures the word methodology will be used for teaching English as a foreign language [TEFL].

There are several definitions of this term:

1. Methodology (from Greek methodos – спосіб, шлях дослідження або пізнання, logos – поняття, вчення) is a framework of organization for teaching which relates linguistic theory to pedagogical principles and techniques.

2. Methodology is a branch of pedagogy which deals with peculiarities of teaching a certain subject.

3. Methodology of FLT is a body of scientifically tested theory concerning the teaching of foreign languages in schools and other educational institutions.

4. Methodology is a system of principles and ways of organization and construction of theoretical and practical activity as well as a teaching about this system.

5. Methodology is a science which studies aims, content, means, principles, techniques and methods of a system of instruction and education on the material of a foreign language.

In our view methodology is a branch of didactics which relates linguistic theory to pedagogical principles and techniques.

The goal of these lecture-notes is to integrate the acquired knowledge of English, didactics, psychology, linguistics and formulate basic professional and pedagogical habits and skills. In G.Rogova’s opinion, methodology covers three main points:

1. aims of TEFL;

2. content of TEFL;

3. methods, principles and techniques of TEFL.

But it becomes evident that the three components do not constitute the whole teaching/learning process. The activities of learners and teachers, their interaction (symmetrical or assymetrical) and the role of instructional materials are the outstanding constituents. The task of methodology is to integrate the relationships among them and to draft requirements for each of them.

The methodology determines the laws, principles, aims, content, methods, techniques, and means of teaching. The actual teaching of a language may differ in the analysis of what is to be taught, in the planning of lessons, in the teaching techniques used, in the type and amount of teaching done through mechanical means and finally, in the testing of what has been learned.

Basic Categories of Methodology

The methodology of TEFL seems to embody such basic categories on which there is general agreement among those who have studied the subject: methods, principles, techniques, aims and means of instruction.

In G. Rogova’s view “method is a technological operation, structural and functional component of the teacher’s and learner’s activity, realized in techniques and principles of instruction. A method is a model of instruction based on definite theoretical provisions, principle, techniques and aims of instruction.

A method is also a specific set of teaching techniques and materials generally backed by stated principles.

A method determines what and how much is taught (selection), the order in which it is taught, and how the meaning and form are conveyed. Since presentation, drill and repetition may also be the concern of the teacher, the analysis of the teaching/leaning process must first determine how much is done by the method and how much by the teacher.

Aim is a direction or guidance to establish a course or procedure to be followed. The teacher should formulate long-term goals, interim aims and short-term objectives. The aims are stipulated by the syllabus and other official directives. They are: practical, instructional, educational and developing (formative).

Practical aims cover habits and skills which pupils acquire in using a foreign language.

A habit is an automatic response to specific situations, acquired normally as a result of repetition and learning.

A skill i s a combination of useful habits serving a definite purpose and requiring application of certain knowledge.

Instructional aims develop the pupils’ mental capacities and intelligence in the process of FLL (foreign language learning).

Educational aims help the pupils extend their knowledge of the world in which they live.

Formative or developing aims help develop in learners sensual perception, motor, kinoesthetic, emotional and motivating spheres.

Principles are basic underlying theoretical provisions which determine the choice of methods, techniques and other means of instruction.

Technique in the methodology of TEFL is the manner of presentation, demonstration, consolidation and repetition.

Means is something by the use or help of which a desired goal is attained or made more likely.

2. Methodology and related sciences: pedagogy, psychology, linguistics

The methodology of FLT is closely related to pedagogy, psychology, linguistics and other sciences.

The basic elements in any teaching situation are the teacher, the subject matter, the learner, the principles, and the aims of instruction. These elements are related to one another in a way very similar to the terms of equation. In other words, language teaching should be based on at least four cornerstones:

- what is known about the nature of the language;

- what is known about the nature of the learner;

- the principles of instruction;

- the aims of instruction.

The aims of instruction have been scientifically determined and include practical, instructional, educative, and formative ones.

The science which analyzes the nature of language in general as well as that of a particular language is linguistics.

The science that studies the process of human behaviour is psychology.

Linguistics is not the only area in which a teacher should be trained and use its results in the teaching/learning process. The importance of psychology and sociology, as well as more extensive teaching in pedagogy is being widely recognized.

The teacher trained the student, help him select appropriate learning materials, and create a positive classroom environment. In order to perform these tasks, the teacher should have access to three main types of information about his students: linguistic, psychological and social factors.

Theteachers should be committed to a teaching profession and to the idea that all pupils can learn a foreign language. They need confidence in themselves to use their intuition and to develop their strong points.

First technique is closely related to pedagogy, as one of its sections, the private didactics. If didactic – pedagogic use of the provisions in relation to teaching a particular subject, in our case a foreign language.

Other basic techniques for science, psychology, revealing the patterns of development and the formation of mental activity of living beings. Of psychology technique derives information about the features of language acquisition, individual - psychological characteristics of students that should be considered in the learning process, the nature of knowledge creation, speech skills.

Next basic techniques for discipline is linguistics, the science of the general laws of the structure and function of language. The linguistic content of learning a foreign language is implemented in the aspects of language (phonology, vocabulary, grammar, graphics, spelling) models proposals structures (dialogue, monologue, discourse), and speech genres that are part of its functional styles (scientific, journalistic, official business, speaking).

Aims of TEFL

Main aim

- To develop students’ ability to talk about past habits using “used to” in the context of childhood and addictions.

- Students will, during the less restricted practice stage, use the target language with sufficient accuracy for their partner to understand their past habits.

Subsidiary aims

- To develop students’ ability to listen for the main ideas in a text.

- To improve students’ ability to talk about the topic of addictions by introducing an “addiction” lexical set.

Personal aims

- Give students more time to discuss in pairs after a listening activity before feedback.

Content of TEFL

Thus, an understanding of current theories of language learning and the achievement of related sciences give all grounds to define the content of FLT in the following terms:

1) linguistic component, covering language and speech material;

2) psychological component, which includes formation of habits and skills which enable the learners to use them for communicative purposes;

3) methodological component that is related to techniques and procedures derived from application of didactic principles.

One of the essential categories of FLT is the content or what to teach. It is impossible to determine the content of FLT without referring to linguistics – a science that deals with the study of languages as a definite system of codes.

The first component of the content of FLT is the linguistic one which includes language material (phonetical, grammatical, and lexical minima) and speech material (utterances of different lengths) to be used in real acts of communication.

The selection of linguistic material, the so-called minimum vocabulary, minimum grammar is circumscribed by the syllabus for secondary schools.

The second component of “what to teach” is a psychological one. We have already described the relation of methodology to other sciences, particularly methodology and psychology. It should be mentioned that dynamic stereotypes serve as psychological bases for habits as automatic components of conscious activity formed as a result of drills or exercises.

The third component of “what to teach” is a methodological one, i.e. rational approaches to FLT: the pupils should be taught how to learn a FL, how to work on the subject to achieve the ultimate goals.

Some methodologists think that the content of FLT includes: a) exercises of different types; b) texts for oral and written work; c) laboratory exercises; d) topical selection of material [cf. 27; 29].

In O.Volmyans’ka’s opinion the content of FLT involves a dialectical unity of all specifically arrangedteaching materials, teaching/learning process, habits, skills, and common essential learnings.

In M.West’s opinion “a language is not a subject which can be taught, it is a subject which must be learnt”. Language acquisition largely depends on systematic work that would bring satisfaction from this occupation and the feeling of progress. What the learners need are useful ideas, suggestions, explanations, demonstrations and examples of learning strategies which are consistent with current achievements in the field of modern language teaching.

Principles of TEFL

The methodology of FLT is based on fundamental principles of didactics:

– the principle of conscious approach;

– communicative approach;

– differentiated and integrated instruction;

– activity;

– visuality;

– accessibility and durability;

– individualization;

– consecutiveness;

– systematicness;

– heuristics, etc.

The Principle of Conscious Approach

It is one of the leading principles because conscious learning plays an important role in language acquisition, enlarges intellectual capacities of learners, and helps to understand new concepts and express new ideas in the target language. This principle also implies comprehension of linguistic phenomena by the learner through the medium of vernacular and the arrangement in sentence patterns graded in difficulties with the emphasis on some essential points. The principle of conscious approach ensures purposeful perception and comprehension of the material, its creative absorption, and retrieval of information from the learner with a certain degree of automacy.

The Principle of Activity

The didactic principle of activity presupposes a constant accumulation of knowledge and active participation of learners in the process of instruction. In TEFL we usually differentiate between intellectual, emotional and speech activities, which, if taken together, ensure favourable conditions to master the language.

In FLT theprinciple of activityis realized through the following provisions:

1. The pupils must be taught to think from the outset not in the mother tongue but in the foreign language.

2. In the early stages and on, the approach to FLT should be primarily oral.

3. The pupils must, whenever it is possible, speak and act, perform actions, and at the same time comment on them. The Total Physical Response Method could be recommended here.

4. Throughout the whole course of instruction, the inductive approach should be adopted: practice precedes theory, since theory is active if put to practical use.

5. Group and choral procedures should be encouraged since they enable all pupils to participate actively in the class-work.

The Principle of Differentiated and Integrated Instruction

Every type of speech activity is characterized by its own set of grammar structures, rules and lexical material. Consequently, we should differentiate between teaching speaking and writing; teaching listening comprehension and speaking; teaching reading and writing; teaching prepared and unprepared speech, etc. The realization of this principle is reflected in Instructional Methodological Sets (IMS) which furnish “software” for each type of activity. To acquire skills in reading, readers and periodicals are used. To acquire grammar skills – books on grammar, reference guidebooks and guides to patterns and usage are recommended.

Psychological investigations confirm the idea of interrelation and interaction between types of activity, and these relations are of a deep-seated character. Consequently, all types of speech activity should be regarded as interrelated parts of communicative process and taken into account while forming the learner’s communicative competence.

The Principle of Visuality

The principle of visuality or ostensive principle is realized in direct and visual modes of semantizing or explaining meanings, i.e. in the demonstration and naming by the teacher of objects, pictures and actions wherefrom the learners infer the meanings of words and expressions used. Visuality in methodology of FLT creates favourable conditions for sensual perceptions and brings another reality in instructive and educative process. The principle of visuality is considered to be one of the main methodological principles especially now that the instruction pursues practical aims. The implementation of visual aids develops the learners’ habits of speech and enhances the emotional influence of visual perception. Most teachers see the need for making use of oral and visual aids in one form or another to help the pupils through imagination to an experience beyond the reach of the classroom.

The Principle of Accessibility

In FLT this principle is realized in conformity with teaching strategies to the pupils’ capacities so that they don’t experience insurmountable difficulties. The teaching materials should meet requirements of linguistic and psychological factors:

1. correspond to the age and mental abilities of the learners; be neither difficult nor easy;

2. be properly graded;

3. be heuristic in form and structure;

4. be presented in such a way that the pupils have to solve one problem at a time.

The teaching materials, their organization secure accessibility in FLT, and techniques used at the lesson and outside school hours. Accessibility presupposes adequate rate of presentation, qualitative assimilation, rate of advancement in forming speech habits and skills.

It is a mistake to suppose that a more limited knowledge of a subject can be imparted more easily and within a shorter period of time than a more extensive one. This is largely due to the fact that semantically related words can be easily assimilated through various associations and fewer associations often imply scarce means of memorization. More facts may sometimes be more easily taught, learnt and memorized in verbal context that are of gnostic value and ensure interest and motivation.

The Principle of Durability

This principle assumes particular importance in FLT because it is largely concerned with a constant growth of language and speech units, words, word-combinations, idioms, clichés which are to be stored and retained in the pupils’ memory so that the learners could use them in listening comprehension, speaking, reading, and writing. Durable and lasting instruction especially in learning a FL can be ensured by:

1. the content of the material to be studied; realization of its importance and necessity for communication and reading;

2. the presentation of new material should be vivid, bright and live; this results in live images, appropriate associations (perception has an emotional impact on the learners); they have to resort to abstract thinking (analysis, synthesis, comparison, inferences, etc.);

3. a great deal of repetitive work supplemented by assimilation, revision and follow-up practices where visual, aural, kinaesthetic and motor analyzers are at work;

4. this material should be used individually and creatively to solve communicative tasks in speaking, reading and writing;

5. a systematic control of the material to be assimilated helps retain it in the pupils’ memory;

6. the revision of the material will be more effective if it is presented repeatedly in a new verbal context, new visual aids are used and the types of exercises are varied.

The afore-mentioned makes it possible to make the following recommendations:

1. while imparting new material show the learners its significance for communication;

2. try to establish different relationships tapering the learners’ thoughts and feelings;

3. use the new material in various verbal contexts so that the pupils could use it;

4. employ various types of testing and evaluation to ensure a feed-back;

5. the language material should be regularly reviewed to ensure better results;

6. durability leads to confidence building and makes the learners feel comfortable and at ease.

The Principle of Individualization

This principle takes into account individual peculiarities of the learner, his background knowledge, what he knows, his spheres of interest, etc., i.e. cognitive styles. Cognitive styles have been defined as characteristic mental and psychological behaviours that “serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment” (Keefe, 1979).

Cognitive styles can hence be thought of as predispositions to particular ways of approaching learning and are intimately related to personality types. Differences in people’s cognitive styles reflect the different ways people respond to learning situations [113, p. 59]. The teacher has to deal with a wide range of pupils: extroverts (who get their greatest satisfaction from social contacts with other people), introverts (who are self-centered, like to be alone with their dreams and their thoughts), deductivists (rational-logical types of pupils who like the rules to be formulated), inductivists (who induce rules from examples), etc.

Some pupils can be managed easily and flexibly, others require more attention and a tough hand, and still others prefer a certain degree of freedom in choosing the mode of learning. Consequently, the teacher needs knowledge of psychology to realize the principle of individual approach to organize for instruction and manage it successfully.

Ian Comenius and his method

The famous Czech educator Ian Comenius (1592-1670) to devise new methods of LT based on new principles. Instead of rules, I. Comenius used imitation, repetition and plenty of practice in both reading and speaking.

In 1631 Ian Comenius published his book “Ianua linguarum reserata” – “The Gates of Languages Unlocked” in which he described new methods of language teaching based on his principles. The book included a limited vocabulary of a few thousand words; each used in a sentence which gave some indication of meaning.

“Orbis Pictus” (1658) is another book by Ian Comenius, in which a Latin text is accompanied by illustrations and translations into the mother tongue. Great attention is paid to direct associations between the word in a FL and an object it denotes. In this way the role of the mother tongue was limited. Ian Comenius recommended the following principles:

– from easy to difficult;

– from simple to complex;

-from known to unknown.

Language teaching remained the chief concern of Ian Communes. His “Linguarum methodus novissima” (Contemporary/modern methods revised) contains one of the first attempts to teach grammar inductively.

Grammar-Translation method

The method involves many written exercises, much translation and lengthy vocabulary lists. The teacher describes in detail the grammar of the language, focusing on the form and inflection of words.

This method aims at providing an understanding of the grammar of the language in question expressed in traditional terms, and at trainingthe students to read and write the target language, rather than mastering the oral and aural skills. To do this the students need to learn the grammar rules and vocabulary of the target language.

The techniques of G-TM imply bilingual vocabulary lists, written exercises, elaborate grammatical explanations, translation, and total involvement in reading and writing.

The objectives of G-TM are non-utilitarian – confined to understanding of literature that gives keys to great classical culture.

The advantages of this method lie in its limited objectives: understanding of written language and some basic writing and translation.

The disadvantages of this method include a total neglect of spoken language, communication skills; the use of esoteric vocabulary, and monotonous procedures in class.

Thus, the Grammar-Translation Method is simply a combination of the activities of grammar and translation.

8. H. Palmer’s method

Harold Palmer, the great English authority and teacher, experimented extensively with the question-answer method. He considered question-answer work was “the most effective of all language learning exercises ever devised”.

Palmer insisted that all questions asked by the teacher must be carefully planned and thought out beforehand. Questions should never be haphazard, either in form or content. Specifically, H. Palmer thought that any question asked by the teacher should be of a nature that admits the following:

a) an obvious answer, not an answer that requires one or more complicated acts of judgement on thepart of the student;

b) an easy answer, not one that requires the use of words, facts, or constructions unknown to the student;

c) a direct answer involving only a moderate change through the process of conversion, substitution, or completion of the material contained in the teacher’s question.

In H. Palmer’s view, there are three stages of learning:

1. Receiving knowledge.

2. Fixing it in the memory by repetition.

3. Using the knowledge by real practice.

H. Palmer paid great attention to a system of exercises, which in his opinion should include:

1. receptive – questions and short answers to them;

2. receptive-imitative words and word-combinations repeated after the teacher;

3. conversational – questions, answers, commands and completion of sentences.

Thus, H.Palmer’s method is based on rationalisation of teaching/learning process and systematic selection of material.

Direct method

The Direct Method (DM) appeared as a reaction to GTM.

The Direct Method was based on the belief that students could learn a language through listening to it and that they learn to speak by speaking it – associating speech with appropriate action, like the way the children learn their native tongue. The Direct Method received its name from the fact that meaning is to be related to the target language directly, without going through the process of translating into the student’s native language.

The various “oral” and “natural” methods that developed at the turn of the century may be grouped under DM. The students learn new words and phrases from objects, actions and mime. When the meaning of words could not be made clear, the teacher would resort to semantization but never to native language translations. From the beginning, students are accustomed to hearing complete meaningful sentences in the target language. Grammar is taught at a later stage inductively, i.e. numerous examples of a certain principle are presented and the rule is then inferred from these examples. Anexplicit grammarrule may never be given.

Students learn to think in the target language as soon as possible. Vocabulary is acquired more naturally if students use it in full sentences, rather than memorising long lists of words. Vocabulary is emphasised over grammar. Although work on all four skills occurs from the start, oral communication is seen as basic. Thus, the reading and writing exercises are based upon what the students have orally practised first. Pronunciation also receives due attention from the beginning of the course. Besides studying everyday speech, the learners also do history, geography, and culture of the country or countries where the language is spoken.

The teacher who employs DM asks the students to self-correct their answers by asking them to make a choice between what they said and alternate answer he supplies. There are, of course, other ways of getting students to self-correct. For example, a teacher might simply repeat what a student has just said using a questioning voice to signal to the student that something was wrong with it. Another possibility is for the teacher to repeat what the student said, stopping just before the error. The student then knows that the next word was wrong. There are also other options of remedial work.

The main principles of DM can be summarised under the following headings:

Techniques

1. FL used throughout.

2. Audio-visual approach.

3. Speech before reading.

4. No translation – meaning conveyed through visuals / mime.

Pros

1. Lively procedures in classroom

2. Correct pronunciation

3. Absence of rule-giving

4. Learning through doing

Cons

1. Plunges learners too soon into unstructured situations

2. Foreign-Language learner not like infant native-language learner

3. Neglect of systematic structural practice

4. Dangers of inducing wrong rule

5. Tremendous energy needed by teacher

Audio-lingual method

Everyday speech is emphasised in the Audio-Lingual Method. The underlying provisions of this method include five maxims to guide teachers in applying the results of linguistic research to the preparation of teaching materials and to classroom techniques:

Language is speech, not writing.

a) Emphasis on correct pronunciation from the beginning;

b) Listening and speaking before reading and writing;

c) Realistic, situational utterances from start;

d) Oral mastery first; reading/writing as reinforcers; time lag will depend on situation.

Language is a set of habits.

a) Based on the assumption that language learning is a habit formation process, pattern drilling and dialogue memorisation are extensively used;

Teach the language, not about the language;

a) Revolt against the grammar-translation method;

b) Grammar for the teacher not the learner;

c) Learn thorough doing, through active practice;

d) Practice first, rules induced later.

4. A language is what its native speakers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say:

a) Emphasis on colloquial wealth of language;

b) Literary language at much later stage;

c) Traditional grammar mistrusted: style and register (occupational, emotive, informative) studied as well as language of attitude.

5. Languages are different:

a) Universal rules of transformational grammar mistrusted;

b) Contrastive studies of language encouraged;

c) Translation accepted when necessary or possible;

d) Translation a later skill with its own techniques.

Techniques

1. Situational dialogues.

2. Everyday language.

3. Emphasis on speaking – aural-oral active participation.

4. Mimicry-memorisation.

5. Pattern-drilling – choral/individual – Role playing/ Dialogue building.

6. Reading and writing to reinforce.

7. Awareness of graphic interference.

8. Rules to be induced from practice.

A-LM enables the students to use the target language communicatively. In order to do this the students are believed to overlearn the target language, to learn to use it automatically without stopping to think. The students achieve this by forming new habits in the target language and overcoming the old habits of their native language.

New vocabulary and structures are presented through dialogues and texts. These are learnt through imitation and repetition. Grammar is induced from the examples given. Students’ reading and written work is based upon the oral work they did earlier.

The main provisions of this method can be conveniently summarised in the following way:

1. Fluency on four skills with initial emphasis on listening and speaking.

2. Formative function: understanding culture through language.

11. Lozanov’s method

Suggestopedia as G.Lozanov called his pedagogical application of “The Science of Suggestology” aims at neutralising learning inhibitions and de-suggesting false limitations that cultural norms impose on learning. In G. Losanov’s view the reason for the pupils’ inefficiency is that they set up psychological barriers that block the way to learning. They fear that they will be unable to perform, that they will be limited in the ability to learn, and finally fail. One result is that the learners’ full mental powers are not engaged (cf. CC-LT). According to G.Losanov and his proponents, only five per cent of the learners’ mental capacity is used. In order to make better use of the mental reserves the limitations, which theythink we have, need to be “desuggested”. Suggestopedia, the application of the study of suggestion to pedagogy, has been developed to help students eliminate the feeling that they cannot be successful and, thereby, to help them overcome the barriers to learning.

Thebehaviourist principlesof G. Losanov’s method assume the form of five maxims:

1. Get the learners to utter the same structure repeatedly.

2. Get them to do so correctly.

3. Do this through good grading of structures by arranging them in order of difficulty and by introducing them one at a time if possible.

4. The behaviourist approach is repetition and drilling to the point where the learner automaticallymakes the correct response.

5. Lessons must be designed so as to prevent the learners from making mistakes.

So, the principles and techniques of Suggestopedia can be conveniently summarised under the following headings:

1. classroom set-up;

2. positive suggestion;

3. visualisation;

4. choosing a new identity;

5. role-play;

6. concert;

7. primary activation (the students playfully re-read the dialogue);

8. secondary activation (the students engage in various activities designed to help them learn the new material and use it spontaneously).

Activities particularly recommended for this phase include singing, dancing, dramatisations, and games. The important thing is that the activities are varied and don’t allow the students to focus on the form of the linguistic message, just the communicative intent.

And finally, instruction is designed so as to tap more successfully the learning powers of the mind and eliminate psychological barriers that block learning and inhibit production. The lessons are pleasant, interesting, and nonthreatening; the teacher gives lots of encouragement, and similar admonitions.

Innovative approaches in methodology

Ageing cohort studies around the world face common methodological challenges of data collection, measurement and analysis, which become increasingly problematic as participants grow older. While these challenges are common to all longitudinal studies, ageing cohort studies in particular highlight complex methodological issues due to the nature of the population. The National Centre for Research Methods (NCRM) funded a series of workshops during 2012 that brought together experts and researchers in longitudinal and ageing cohort studies to discuss some of these methodological challenges. The series was divided into workshops around the challenges of data collection, measurement and analysis in ageing cohort studies. The workshops and international conference brought together over 150 researchers working primarily in the social and medical sciences. Within the social sciences, social statistics and sociology were the main disciplines represented; while within the medical sciences, epidemiology and gerontology were the main disciplines. Principal investigators and researchers from a number of ageing cohort studies attended the events, including the 1946, 1958, 1970 British Birth Cohort studies, English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA), Whitehall II study, the Cognitive Function and Ageing Studies, the Gas and Electricity Workers cohort study (GAZEL) and the Lothian birth cohort. There were presentations from early career researchers at all the events. These workshops were successful in generating discussions about the methodological contributions from different disciplines on the challenges related to data collection and analysis for ageing cohort studies. The seminar series was responsive to suggestions from attendees, for example, the theme of workshop 2 emerged from discussions at workshop 1. The themes of the conference and related training workshops emerged from the evaluations from previous workshops. Evaluations for each event were very positive, with a strong appreciation for the training workshops. Attendees were very appreciative of the provision of STATA. do files for complex analyses and they indicated a strong preference for more training events on the topics of missing data and life course analysis. This report summarises some of the work underlying the workshops and highlights some of the innovative solutions researchers have adopted to overcome these challenges. These include using mixed modes of data collection to deal with respondent burden, using the Life Grid history method to deal with recall bias for proxy respondents, using auxiliary variables to adjust for ‘missing not at random’ mechanisms, and using a range of missing data analysis methods and simulation studies to assess the performance of a different analytical strategies to deal with missing data.

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