Main types of semantic correlation of English and Russian words

The semantic structure of any language including its vocabulary system is a complicated whole which according to F.de Saussure is determined by two factors: extralinguistic and intralinguistic [Соссюр 1977]. The first factor shows how the language segments the outside world and embodies the results of its reflection by human mind in the meanings of lexical units. The second factor takes into account semantic links within the vocabulary system and thus determines semantic value of particular units. English and Russian differ from each other in both of these dimensions, and norms of speech make these differences greater. Cf. He tiptoed into the room. Он вошёл в комнату на цыпочках. The English adverbial verb both names the action and characterizes it, while in Russian this information is distributed between several words.

The semantic structure of individual lexical units is also a complicated structure, because it is made up of two aspects of lexical meaning (denotational and connotational) which are described in their turn as sets of semantic components or semes. So any correlated units in Sl and TL should be compared both in their denotational and connotational components, the latter comprising emotive charge, evaluative component, expressive component and stylistic reference.

The problem of relationship between word-senses in translation is regarded as a fundamental issue which is a constant challenge to a translator. According to A.L. Bourak, there are three key types of relationship between word-senses in the SL and TL: (1) inclusion (hyponymy), (2) partial inclusion (cross-language synonyms) and (3) exclusion (antonymy) [Бурак 2002].

Thus, taking into account various aspects of lexical meaning and semantic structures of correlated English and Russian words, scholars establish 3 types of semantic correlation:

1) full semantic coincidence,

2) partial semantic coincidence,

3) absence of semantic coincidence.

The 1-st type of semantic correlation is established between correlated words in two languages the semantic structures of which coincide fully. Such cases are quite rare and this type of semantic correlation is usually confined to various classes of proper and geographic names, monosemantic terms, numerals and other varieties of precision lexis that form closed sets of units, e.g. per mille – промилле, hi-fi – высококачественный (о звукозаписи), Greenwich mean time – среднее время по Гринвичу.

The 2-nd type of semantic correlation characterizes the vast majority of correlated words in English and Russian which are not always interchangeable in translation because their semantic structures do not coincide fully so they correlate only in some of their meanings. According to prof. L.S. Barkhudarov, in regard to denotational component of lexical meaning partial semantic coincidence of correlated words can be of two kinds:

· intersection – a type of relationship established between related polysemantic words in English and Russian refers to cases of interlingual relative synonymy, e.g.

coat – 1) пиджак; жакет; куртка; китель

2) мех; шерсть; шкура

3) покров; слой; обшивка

The English dictionary correspondences for various meanings of the Russian word (see underlined meanings above) have their own correspondences in TL that wll be different from those given in the above example, cf.

шерсть – 1) hair слой – 1) layer

2) wool; card 2) stratum

3) worsted 3) skin; covering

4) woolen stuff 4)cover; cloak

· inclusion – a type of relationship established between English and Russian related words refers to cases of interlingual hyponymy / hyperonymy, i.e. words differ in their semantic volume in SL and TL, cf. часы – watch, clock (the Russian word does not specify the component of place, locality).

The English word vocal is broader than its Russian counterpart вокальный and can be translated by the following Russian correspondences:

1) голосовой, речевой;

2) звучащий, наполненный звуком;

3) обладающий голосом;

4) красноречивый, выразительный;

5) звонкий [NERD].

These varieties of semantic relationships underlie different types of linguistic relations of correlated English and Russian words:

· relative interlingual synonymy: e.g.палата – 1.palace, 2. chamber, hall; 3. ward; 4.chamber, house.

· interlingual hyponymy/hyperonymy: авантюра (2 meanings) – adventure (4 meanings)

· interlingual antonymy: rich has the following antonyms for its various meanings: 1 ) wealthy – бедный, 2) fertile – бесплодный, 3) valuable – дешевый, 4) delicious, spicy – безвкусный, пресный.

· Interlingual paronymy (partial similarity in form with no coincidence in meaning): affair (дело, бизнес; эпизод, событие, история; любовная связь) – афера (shady transaction, fraud, speculation, swindle).

Partial semantic coincidence may concern correlation of English and Russian words on the basis of their connotational component of meaning, cf.

bobby (Br informal, old-fashioned)

полицейский (neutral) policeman (neutral)

cop (informal), ranger (Am, sl)

This type of partial semantic coincidence is connected with great differences in the stylistic stratification of vocabulary systems in English and Russian. Quite often neutral words in one language correlate with stylistically marked units in another, cf. поймать тачку ( youth slang) – to hitch a ride ( neutral); to chat ( neutral) – чатиться (общаться по Интернету)( slang).

The 3-rd type of semantic correlation refers to numerous cases of empty cells (lacunae) in the vocabulary system of one of the two languages compared to that of the other language which may be due to various causes:

1) the difference in the systems of nominative means in English and Russian (cf. a fortnight – две недели, четырнадцать дней; by-line – строка в начале статьи (на которой помещается фамилия автора, художника или фотографа);

2) appearance of new coinages (self-cover – обложка из тиражной бумаги; hoops – баскетбол);

3) cultural words (Civil List – цивильный лист, самофинансирование – self-financing performance, декретница – woman on maternity leave).

The third type of relationship can be qualified as semantic mismatch of two language systems which requires search for various solutions:

1) the use of functional – semantic analogues: авось – divine providence, blind trust in sheer luck;

2) descriptive definitions, Голубой огонёк – a popular New-Year’s Eve TV show;

3) loan translation; бизнес по-русски – business Russian-style;

4) transplants from SL: PIN-code – PIN – код, карта VISA.

The comparison of the three types of semantic correlation of English and Russian words shows that translation problems involved in them are different and their discussion should be linked with the main types of lexical correspondences.

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