CHAPTER 7. SEED: 1829–1837

1. Jonathan F. Wendel, Curt L. Brubaker, and A. Edward Percival, “Genetic Diversity in Gossypium hirsutum and the Origin of Upland Cotton,” American Journal of Botany 79, no. 11 (1992): 1291–1310.

2. Cf. Arkansas Gazette, June 30, 1821.

3. Tyre Glen to Isaac Jarratt, February 11, 1832, Box 2, Jarratt-Puryear Papers, Duke.

4. Oakley Neils Durfee Barber, “Honor, Gender, Violence and the Life of Robert Potter” (Master’s thesis, Southwest Texas State University, 2000); Ernest Fischer, Robert Potter: Founder of the Texas Navy (Gretna, LA, 1976); Harry L. Watson, Jacksonian Politics and Community Conflict: The Emergence of the Second American Party System in Cumberland County, North Carolina (Baton Rouge, LA, 1981); Lacy K. Ford, Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800–1860 (New York, 1988); Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in America (New York, 2000), 332.

5. Edwin Miles, Jacksonian Democracy in Mississippi (Chapel Hill, NC, 1960); Craig T. Friend, Along the Maysville Road: The Early American Republic in the Trans-Appalachian West (Knoxville, TN, 2006); Joseph Tregle, Louisiana in the Age of Jackson: A Clash of Cultures and Personalities (Baton Rouge, LA, 1999).

6. Ernest Shearer, Robert Potter: Remarkable North Carolinian and Texan (Houston, 1951), 9–12.

7. Manuel Eisner, “Long-Term Historical Trends in Violent Crime,” Crime and Justice 30 (2003): 83–142, esp. 99; Randolph Roth, American Homicid e (Cambridge, MA, 2009), 162–225.

8. Shearer, Robert Potter, 12–28; Joseph Cheshire, Nonnulla: Memories, Stories, Traditions, More or Less Authentic (Chapel Hill, NC, 1930).

9. Richmond Enquirer, September 30, 1831; Indiana Democrat, September 18, 1831; Baltimore Patriot, October 18, 1831; R. S. to John D. Hawkins, August 30, 1831, Fol. 48, Hawkins Family Papers, SHC.

10. Robert Potter, M r. Potter’s Appeal to the Citizens of Nash, Warren, Franklin, and Granville (Hillsborough, NC, 1831); Richmond Enquirer, March 27, 1832.

11. Richmond Enquirer, December 28, 1831; Baltimore Patriot, July 28, 30, 1834, August 8, 1834; Barre (MA) Farmers’ Gazette, February 13, 1835; Norfolk (VA) Advertiser, March 14, 1835; New Hampshire Patriot, March 16, 1835; Shearer, Robert Potter, 34– 36.

12. Roth, American Homicide, 162–225.

13. P. W. Alston to J. D. B. Hooper, December 22, 1833, John D. Hooper Papers, SHC; Wm. Hardies to Sarah Hardies, April 11, 1833, Fol. 1/5, BIELLER; D. McKenzie to Jn. McLaurin, March 29, 1838, August 23, 1845, Duncan McLaurin Papers, Duke; Wm. Southgate to Wm. P. Smith, May 17, 1837, Wm. P. Smith Papers, Duke; B. F. Duvall to Martha Wattairs, May 2, 1843, Box 2, James Tutt Papers, Duke; D. Ker to J. Ker, August 1, 1817, Ker Papers, SHC; NOP, March 19, 1837, July 5, 1846; cf. Jos. Hazard to I. Hazard, November 30, 1841, Hazard Company, LLMVC; Sam Sutton to Fred. Harris, August 14, 1820, Frederick Harris Papers, Duke; L. Taylor to W. H. Hatchett, September 26, 1836, William Hatchett Papers, Duke; Letter of August 24, 1823, David Leech Papers, Duke.

14. Henry Benjamin Whipple, Bishop Whipple’s Southern Diary, 1843–1844, ed. Lester B. Shippee (Minneapolis, 1937), 24–25; C. A. Hentz Diary, vol. 1, February 24, 1849, Hentz Papers, SHC; Lewis Clarke, ST, 157; cf. Wm. Slack to Ch. Slack, December 1838, Slack Papers, SHC.

15. John Pelham to E. Dromgoole, February 20, 1833, Dromgoole Papers, SHC.

16. H. Watson to Mother, December 2, 1836, Henry Watson Papers, Duke; Edward E. Baptist, Creating an Old South: Middle Florida’s Plantation Frontier Before the Civil Wa r (Chapel Hill, NC, 2002), 103–105; J. F. H. Claiborne, Mississippi as Territory and State (Jackson, MS, 1880), 361–414.

17. Natchez Gazette, May 11, 1832; Miles, Jacksonian Democracy, 45.

18. Claiborne, M ississippi, 423–427.

19. NR, March 12, 1825.

20. Webster to Mrs. Webster, February 19, 1829, in Daniel Webster, Private Correspondence (Boston, 1857), 1:470; Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822–1832 (New York, 1981); Edwin Miles, “The First People’s Inaugural—1829,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 37 (1978).

21. James Parton, Life of Jackson (New York, 1860), 3:169–170.

22. Remini, Andrew Jackson and American Freedom, 2:132; Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy (New York, 1984), 227–230; James Wyly to J. K. Polk, January 11, 1833, JKP, 2:15–17.

23. Remini, Andrew Jackson and American Freedom, 200.

24. A. Jackson to J. Overton, June 8, 1829, The Papers of Andrew Jackson, ed. Sam B. Smith and Harriet Fason Chappell Owsley (Knoxville, TN, 1980), 7:270–271.

25. NR, March 8, 1828, 19–22. Historians still argue about whether or not the plot existed, and if so, what it entailed: Michael P. Johnson, “Denmark Vesey and His Co-Conspirators,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., vol. 58, no. 4 (2001): 915–976; James O’Neil Spady, “Power and Confession: On the Credibility of the Earliest Reports of the Denmark Vesey Conspiracy,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., vol. 68 (2011): 287–304.

26. Nicholas Biddle to J. Harper, January 9, 1829, 67–68; Wm. Lewis to Biddle, October 16, 1829, 79–80, The Correspondence of

Nicholas Biddle Dealing with National Affairs, 1807–1844, ed. Reginald McGrane (Boston, 1919).

27. Margaret Bayard Smith to Maria Kirkpatrick, March 12, 1829, in Gaillard Hunt, ed., The First Forty Years of Washington Society in the Family Letters of Margaret Bayard Smith (New York, 1906), 424.

28. Historians often misidentify southwestern anti-Jackson politicians as “nullifiers.” Most, like Poindexter, were simply Jackson-haters: Elizabeth Varon, Disunion: The Coming of the American Civil Wa r, 1789–1859 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2008), 55–57. For nullification, among many other excellent works, see Brian Schoen, The Fragile Fabric of Union: Cotton, Federal Politics, and the Global Origins of the Civil War (Baltimore, 2009).

29. Kirsten Wood, “One Woman So Dangerous to the Public Morals: Gender and Power in the Eaton Affair,” JER 17 (1997): 237– 275; Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians (New York, 1993).

30. CHSUS, Ca 9–19.

31. Correspondence of Nicholas Biddle, 93.

32. J. Springs to Wife, September 23, 1806, Springs Papers, SHC.

33. H. B. Trist to N. Trist, May 18, 1825, Nicholas Trist Papers, SHC; Undated note, Fol. 1824, A. P. Walsh Papers, Louisiana State University.

34. Fritz Redlich, The Molding of American Banking: Men and Ideas (New York, 1968), 1:270fn8–9; Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (New York, 2005), 365.

35. I. Franklin (IF) to R. C. Ballard (RB), January 9, 1832, February 10, 1832, Fol. 4 & 5, RCB.

36. Baltimore Patriot, January 1, 1829; Richard H. Kilbourne, Slave Agriculture and Financial Markets in Antebellum America: The Bank of the United States in Mississippi, 1831–1852 (London, 2006).

37. Wilentz, Rise of American Democracy, 366; Redlich, Molding of American Banking, 1:21; Biddle to Thomas Swann, March 17, 1824, Exhibit No. 1-L, p. 297, in report of the Senate Committee on Finance, 23rd Cong., 2nd sess., Congressional Serial Set.

38. March 19, 1832, Discounts A-L #1, vol. 19, Bank of the United States (Natchez Branch) Records, LLMVC; Bank of Mississippi, RASP; US Department of Commerce, US Census Bureau, 1830 Census, Adams County, MS; Miles, Jacksonian Democracy, 23; Martha Brazy, An American Planter: Stephen Duncan of Antebellum Natchez and New York (Baton Rouge, LA, 2006), 20–21; Robert Roeder, “New Orleans Merchants, 1790–1837” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 1959); Ralph Catterall, The Second Bank of the United S ta tes (Chicago, 1902), 137–143.

39. McKay W. Campbell to James K. Polk, November 23, 1833, JKP, 2:136–138; A. O. Harris to James K. Polk, November 16, 1833, JKP, 2:131–132.

40. Jesse Cage to William Cotton, August 27, 1839, Fol. 28, RCB.

41. IF to RB, September 27, 1834, Fol. 15, RCB; cf. Walter Johnson, Soul by Soul: Life Inside the Antebellum Slave Market (Cambridge, MA, 1999).

42. Daniel Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow (New York, 2011); Dan Ariely, Predictably Irrational: The Hidden Forces That Shape Our Decisions (New York, 2008); Geoffrey Miller, Spent: Sex, Evolution, and Consumer Behavior (New York, 2009), 106– 111.

43. Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy (Charlottesville, VA, 1997); Jan Lewis and Peter Onuf, eds., Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson: History, Memory, and Civic Culture (Charlottesville, VA, 1999); “Bawdy Poem,” n.d. [1820s–1830s], Fol. 10, Young Allen Papers, SHC.

44. Bryan Edwards, “The Sable Venus: An Ode,” from his Poems, Written Chiefly in the West-Indies (Kingston, 1792); cf. Regulus Allen, “The Sable Venus and Desire for the Undesirable,” Studies in English Literature, 1500–1900 51, no. 3 (2011).

45. Trevor Burnard, “The Sexual Life of an Eighteenth-Century Jamaican Slave Overseer,” in Merril D. Smith, ed. Sex and Sexuality in Early America (New York, 1998), 163–189, esp. 173.

46. Cf. Patricia Cline Cohen, The Murder of Helen Jewett: The Life and Death of a Prostitute in Nineteenth-Century New York (New York, 1998); Karen Halttunen, Confidence Men and Painted Women: A Study of Middle-Class Culture in America, 1830– 1870 (New Haven, CT, 1982).

47. Harriet Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself (Boston, 1861); Calvin Schermerhorn, Money over Mastery, Family over Freedom: Slavery in the Antebellum Upper South (Baltimore, 2011).

48. Drew Gilpin Faust, James Henry Hammond and the Old South: A Design for Mastery (Baton Rouge, LA, 1982).

49. Henry C. Knight, Letters from the South and West (Boston, 1824), 127; NR, 29 (November 5, 1825), 160; Tregle, Louisiana in the Age of Jackson, 37.

50. IF to RB, November 14, 1831, December 10, 14, 1831, Fol. 3; IF to RB, January 9, 1832, Fol. 4; IF to RB, February 10, 1832, Fol. 5; IF and James Franklin to RB, April 24, 1832, Fol. 6; IF and James Franklin to RB, June 9, 1832, Fol. 7; IF to RB, October 26, 1831, Fol. 2; Samuel Franklin to RB, June 1, 1831, Fol. 1; IF to RB, May 31, 1831, Fol. 1; John Armfield to RB, July 23, 1831, August 15, 1831, Fol. 2, RCB. Biddle: H.R. 460, 22nd Cong., 1st sess., 316–317; Catterall, Second Bank, 143n2, cf. 502–508; Richard H. Kilbourne, Slave Agriculture and Financial Markets in Antebellum America: The Bank of the United States in Mississippi, 1831–1852 (London, 2006), 28–32.

51. IF to RB, December 8, 1832, Fol. 8; IF to RB, January 29, 1833, Fol. 10; C. M. Rutherford to RB, December 23, 1832, Fol. 9; IF to RB, June 8, 1832, Fol. 7; IF to RB, June 9, 1832, Fol. 7; IF to RB, June 11, 1833, Fol. 11, RCB.

52. Ethan A. Andrews, Slavery and the Domestic Slave-Trade in the United States (Boston, 1836), 136; E. S. Abdy, Journal of a

Residence and Tour in the United States (London, 1835), 2:179–180; Wendell Stephenson, Isaac Franklin: Slave Trader and Planter of the Old South; With Plantation Records (University, LA, 1938), 29–30; J. W. Ingraham, The South-West, by a Yankee (New York, 1836), 2:245; RB to Franklin & Co., September 7, 1832, Fol. 7, RCB; Ariela J. Gross, Double Character: Slavery and Mastery in the Antebellum Courtroom (Princeton, NJ, 2000), 57.

53. IF to RB, January 11, 1834, Fol. 13, RCB.

54. Norfolk Democrat, December 1, 1848; William Bowditch, Slavery and the Constitution (Boston, 1849), 89; Henry Clarke Wright, American Slavery Proved to Be Robbery and Theft (Edinburgh, 1845), 21; Farmers’ Gazette, March 6, 1835.

55. Andrews, Domestic Slave-Trade, 166; ASAI, 16; Ronald Walters, “The Erotic South: Civilization and Sexuality in American Abolitionism,” American Quarterly 25, no. 2 (1973): 177–201; Elizabeth Clark, “‘The Sacred Rights of the Weak’: Pain, Sympathy and the Culture of Individual Rights in Antebellum America,” JAH 82 (1995): 463–493; Carol Lasser, “Voyeuristic Abolitionism: Sex, Gender, and the Transformation of Antislavery Rhetoric,” JER 28, no. 1 (2008): 83–114; Gregory Smithers, “American Abolitionism and Slave-Breeding Discourse: A Re-Evaluation,” Slavery and Abolition 33, no. 4 (2012): 551–570; IF to RB, November 1, 1833, Fol. 12; IF to RB, January 11, 1834, Fol. 13; J. Franklin to RB, March 7, 1834, Fol. 13, RCB.

56. Wood, “One Woman So Dangerous”; Johnson, Soul by Soul, 114; IF to RB, January 11, 1834, Fol. 13; Sam Wakefield to RB, August 16, 1836, Fol. 17; Bacon Tait to RB, August 13, 1839, Fol. 28, RCB.

57. R. B. Beverley to W. B. Beverley, July 2, 1842, Sec. 46, Beverley Papers, VHS; Nancy Bieller to Jacob Bieller, August 16, 1836; Jacob Bieller Will, December 8, 1834; Bieller v. Bieller notes, BIELLER; Robt. Hairston to G. Hairston, April 13, 1852; P. Hairston to G. Hairston, June 8, 1852, Fol. 2, George Hairston Papers, SHC; Jas. Hairston to P. W. Hairston, May 13, 1852, vol. 9, P. W. Hairston Papers, SHC; Henry Wiencek, The Hairstons: An American Family in Black and White (New York, 1999).

58. Louisa Picquet and Hiram Mattison, Louisa Picquet, The Octoroon: O r, Inside Views of Southern Domestic Life (New York, 1861), 10–19; N. E. Benson to E. Benson, May 3, 1837, Benson-Thompson Papers, Duke.

59. IF to RB, January 9, 1832, Fol. 4; C. M. Rutherford to RB, February 19, 1853, Fol. 187, RCB; Philip Thomas to Finney, July 24, 1859; P. Thomas to Jack, November 26, 1859, William Finney Papers, Duke.

60. Jas. Franklin to RB, March 27, 1832, Fol. 5, RCB.

61. Moses Alexander to Wm. Graham, July 8, 1836, Papers of William Graham (Raleigh, NC, 1957–1992), 1:432–435. Discussions of “animal spirits” in the economy have usually left out sex, from Charles Mackay, Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds (London, 1852), all the way to John K. Galbraith, A Short History of Financial Euphoria (New York, 1993), and beyond.

62. Undated note, Fol. 1824, A. P. Walsh Papers, LLMVC.

63. Irene Neu, “J. B. Moussier and the Property Banks of Louisiana,” Business History Review 35, no. 4 (1961): 550–557; Redlich, Molding of American Banking, 1:206–207; Earl S. Sparks, History and Theory of Agricultural Credit in the United States (New York, 1932), 6.

64. New Orleans Argus, February 26, 1828.

65. George Green, Finance and Economic Development in the Old South: Louisiana Banking, 1804–1861 (Palo Alto, CA, 1972), 113–117; Lavergne à Manuel Andry, September 14, 1828, Fol. 1A/1; Interr. Oliver Morgan with John R. Dewitt, March 19, 1829; J. DeWitt application, March 24, 1829, Fol. 1A/4; Mortgage Book, vol. 68, CAPL Papers, LLMVC.

66. “Slaves’ Deaths on Ste. Sophie, October 1824–March 1829,” Ste. Sophie / Live Oak Records, Tulane.

67. Robert Carson to Henderson Forsyth, December 3, 1836, John Forsyth Papers, Duke; Natchez Gazette, October 20, 1830; Miles, Jacksonian Democracy, 24; James Silver, “Land Speculation Profits in the Chickasaw Cession,” JSH 10 (1944): 84–92.

68. Wilentz, Rise of American Democracy, 364, 874–875n13; Catterall, Second Bank, 243–286; Baltimore Patriot, July 12, 1831; New York American, July 10, 1819; Frank Otto Gathell and John McFaul, “The Outcast Insider: Reuben Whitney and the Bank War,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 91 (1967): 115–144; Frank Otto Gathell, “Sober Second Thoughts on Va n Buren, the Albany Regency, and Wall Street,” JAH 53 (1966): 19–40.

69. Biddle to Thomas Cadwalader, July 3, 1832, Correspondence of Nicholas Biddle, 192–193; Samuel Smith to Jackson, June 17, 1832, CAJ, 4:449.

70. Donald B. Cole, A Jackson Man: Amos Kendall and the Rise of American Democracy (Baton Rouge, LA, 2004).

71. John Anderson to Polk, January 25, 1833, JKP, 2:47–49; Jackson’s Veto Message, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/ajvet001.asp, accessed May 3, 2012.

72. Biddle to William G. Bucknor, July 13, 1832, Correspondence of Nicholas Biddle, 195; Martin Van Buren, The Autobiography of Martin Va n Buren, ed. John Fitzpatrick (Washington, DC, 1920), 625; Remini, Andrew Jackson and American Freedom, 2:366; Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (New York, 2007); William Lee Miller, Lincoln’s Virtues: An Ethical Biography (New York, 2002).

73. Biddle to Henry Clay, August 1, 1832, Correspondence of Nicholas Biddle, 196–197.

74. Baptist, Creating an Old South; J. Mills Thornton, Politics and Power in a Slave Society: Alabama, 1800–1860 (Baton Rouge, LA, 1978); Harry L. Watson, Liberty and Power: The Politics of Jacksonian America (New York, 1990).

75. Jackson to Polk, August 31, 1833, JKP, 2:106–107.

76. Pet banks increased from seven to thirty-five between 1833 and 1836: Frank Otto Gathell, “Spoils of the Bank War: Political Bias in the Selection of the Pet Banks,” AHR 70 (1964): 35–58; Harry N. Scheiber, “Pet Banks in Jacksonian Economy and Finance, 1833–

1841,” Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 196–214; Miles, Jacksonian Democracy, 74–75; Peter Temin, The Jacksonian Economy (New York, 1969), 73–76; US Congress, House of Representatives, “Condition of Banks, 1840,” 26th Cong., 2nd sess., H. Doc. 111 (Serial 385), 1441; D. W. Jordan to Emily Jordan, August 3, 1833, and D. W. Jordan to Richard Evans, October 15, 1833, D. W. Jordan Papers, Duke; IF and J. Franklin to RB, October 29, 1833, Fol. 11; IF to RB, November 5, 1833, Fol. 12, RCB; Knight to William Beall, February 8, 1834, John Knight Papers, Duke; Green, Finance and Economic Development, 90–94.

77. Thomas Govan, Nicholas Biddle: Nationalist and Public Banker, 1786–1844 (Chicago, 1959), 253; Howe, What Hath God Wrought, 391n61; IF to RB, February 7, 1834; James Franklin to RB, Fol. 13, RCB; S. S. Prentiss to Mother, March 23, 1834, in George L. Prentiss, A Memoir of S. S. Prentiss (New York, 1856), 1:139.

78. Miles, Jacksonian Democracy, 76; Tregle, Louisiana in the Age of Jackson, 281–284; cf. J. Franklin to RB, December 19, 1833, Fol. 12, RCB; Claiborne, Mississippi, 409–416; John Wurts to Polk, December 19, 1833, JKP, 2:186; John Welsh to Polk, December 28, 1833, JKP, 2:200–202; Parton, Life of Jackson, 2:549–550; Biddle to Poindexter, February 22, 1834; IF to RB, February 7, 1834; James Franklin to RB, Fol. 13, RCB; Terry Cahal to Polk, January 2, 1834, and William Jenkins to Polk, January 3, 1834, JKP, 2:209–211, 217.

79. US Congress, “Condition of Banks,” 249, 299, 535; R. T. Hoskins to R. T. Brownrigg, December 19, 1835, Brownrigg Papers, SHC; Thomas Abernethy, “The Early Development of Commerce and Banking in Tennessee,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 14 (1927): 321–322; R. W. Hidy, “The Union Bank Loan of 1832: A Case Study in Marketing,” Journal of Political Economy 47 (1939): 232–352; Miles, Jacksonian Democracy, 140–141; Roeder, “New Orleans Merchants,” 334.

80. Jane Knodell, “Rethinking the Jacksonian Economy: The Impact of the 1832 Bank Veto on Commercial Banking,” Journal of Economic History 66 (2006): 541–574; Edward E. Baptist, “Borrowed by the Lash: Enslaved People as Collateral in the Great Divergence,” Paper presented at Capitalizing on Finance Conference, Huntington Library, Pasadena, CA, April 13, 2013.

81. American State Papers: Land, 2:495–497; Claiborne, M ississippi, 411–417; US Congress, “Condition of Banks,” 290, 325–344; Henry Clay to Wm. Mercer, August 13, 1834, William Mercer Papers, Tulane.

82. Anna Whitteker to Emily Dupuy, May 10, 1835, Emily Dupuy Papers, Mss1D9295b, Sect. 1, VHS.

83. Miles, Jacksonian Democracy, 118–119; [?] to Thomas Wyche, February 9, 1835, Wyche-Otey Papers, SHC; IF to RB, March 30, 1834, Fol. 13; James Blakey to RB, August 6, 1834, Fol. 15; IF to RB, September 17, 1834, Fol. 15, RCB.

84. Thomas Dorsey to J. Bieller, April 15, 1835, Fol. 1/7, BIELLER; Isham Harrison to Thomas Harrison, October 14, 1834, Fol. 3, James Harrison Papers, SHC.

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