Chapter 2. Heads: 1791–1815

1. Benjamin Latrobe, Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diary and Sketches, 1818–1820, ed. Samuel Wilson Jr. (New York, 1951), 13–14; Frances Trollope, Domestic Manners of the Americans, ed. Pamela Neville-Sington (repr. London, 1997), 9–11; John Pintard to Sec. Treasury, September 14, 1803, TP, 9:52–53. Cf. Amos Stoddard, Historical Sketches of Louisiana (Philadelphia, 1812), 159–160; James Pearse, Narrative of the Life of James Pearse (Rutland, VT, c. 1826), 16; H. Bellenden Ker, Travels Through the Western Interior of the United States (Elizabethtown, NJ, 1816), 36; Pierre-Louis Berquin-Duvallon, trans. John Davis, Travels in Louisiana and Florida in the Year 1802 (New York, 1806), 8.

2. TASTD; James McMillin, The Final Victims: Foreign Slave Trade to North America, 1783–1810 (Columbia, SC, 2004), 23; Stephen Behrendt, David Eltis, and David Richardson, “The Costs of Coercion: African Agency in the Pre-Modern Atlantic World,” Economic History Review (n.s.) 54, no. 3 (2001): 454–476.

3. Approval Alex. Clark, Bill of Lading, March 9, 1807, Reel 1, Inward Manifests, New Orleans, RG 36, NA; John Lambert, Travels Through Canada and the United States of America, In the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808 (London, 1816), 2:166.

4. David Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas (New York, 2000); Joseph C. Miller, Wa y of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade (Madison, WI, 1988); Robin C. Blackburn, Origins of New World Slavery: From the Baroque to the Modern, 1492–1800 (London, 1997).

5. Sidney Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York, 1985); Stuart Schwartz, Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society: Bahia, 1550–1835 (New York, 1985).

6. M.L.E. Moreau de St. Méry, Description topographique, physique, civile, politique et historique de la partie francaise de l’isle Saint-Domingue..., 2 vols. (Paris, 1797); Antonio Benitez-Rojo, The Repeating Island: The Caribbean and the Postmodern Perspective, trans. James Maraniss (Durham, NC, 1992).

7. Mintz, Sweetness and Power; Kenneth Pomeranz and Steven Topik, The World That Trade Created: Society, Culture, and the World Economy, 1400 to the Present, 2nd ed. (Armonk, NY, 2000); Kenneth C. Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Berkeley, CA, 2000), 31–68; David Eltis, “Nutritional Trends in Africa and the Americas: Heights of Africans, 1819–1839,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 12 (1982): 453–475.

8. Berquin-Duvallon, Travels in Louisiana, 35–37.

9. Alexander DeConde, This Affair of Louisiana (New York, 1976), 61–62, 107–126; William Plumer, William Plumer’s Memorandum of Proceedings in the U.S. Senate, 1803–1807, ed. Edward Sommerville Brown (Ann Arbor, MI, 1923).

10. Carolyn Fick, The Making of Haiti: The St. Domingue Revolution from Below (Knoxville, TN, 1990).

11. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston, 1995); Susan Buck-Morss, “Hegel and Haiti,” Critical Inquiry 26 (2000): 821–865; Alfred N. Hunt, Haiti’s Influence on Antebellum America: Slumbering Volcano in the Caribbean (Baton Rouge, LA, 1988).

12. C. L. R. James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint Louverture and the San Domingo Revolution (New York, 1963).

13. Stephen Englund, Napoleon: A Political Life (New York, 2004); Laurent DuBois, Avengers of the New World (New York, 2004); Robin Blackburn, Th e Overthrow of Colonial Slavery (London, 1988).

14. Roger Kennedy, Mr. Jefferson’s Lost Cause: Land, Farmers, Slavery, and the Louisiana Purchase (New York, 2003).

15. Jefferson to Robert Livingston, April 18, 1802; Jon Kukla, A Wilderness So Immense: The Louisiana Purchase and the Destiny of America (New York, 2003), 235–259.

16. DeConde, Affair of Louisiana, 161–166.

17. P. L. Roederer, Oeuvres du Comte P. L. Roederer (Paris, 1854), 3:461; Comté Barbé-Marbois, The History of Louisiana: Particularly of the Cession of That Colony to the United States of America, trans. “By an American Citizen (William B. Lawrence)”

(Philadelphia, 1830), 174–175, 263–264.

18. Dubois, Avengers of the New World, 297–301.

19. Christopher Brown, Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill, NC, 2006).

20. Annals of Congress, 1806, 238; Donald Robinson, Slavery in the Structure of American Politics, 1765–1820 (New York, 1970), 331; David Brion Davis, Slavery and Human Progress (New York, 1984), 162–163.

21. DeConde, Affair of Louisiana, 205–206; Jared Bradley, ed., Interim Appointment: William C. C. Claiborne Letter Book, 1804–1805 (Baton Rouge, LA, 2003), 13; Alexander Hamilton, in New-York Evening Post, July 5, 1803, Papers of Alexander Hamilton, 26:129–136. An exception to historians’ cover-up: Henry Adams, History of the Administrations of Jefferson and Madison (New York, 1986 [Library of America]), 1:2, 20–22. Cf. Edward E. Baptist, “Hidden in Plain View: Haiti and the Louisiana Purchase,” in Elizabeth Hackshaw and Martin Munro, eds., Echoes of the Haitian Revolution in the Modern World (Kingston, Jamaica, 2008).

22. Peter J. Kastor, Nation’s Crucible: The Louisiana Purchase and the Creation of America (New Haven, CT, 2004); Lawrence Powell, The Accidental City: Improvising New Orleans (Cambridge, MA, 2012); Plumer, Proceedings, 223–224, notes three Louisiana French planters’ visits to Congress complaining about Claiborne.

23. Berquin-Duvallon, Travels in Louisiana, 28–29, 80; Vincent Nolte, Memoirs of Vincent Nolte (New York, 1934); Sarah P. Russell, “Cultural Conflicts and Common Interests: The Making of the Sugar Planter Class in Louisiana, 1795–1853” (PhD diss., University of Maryland, 2000); Kenneth Aslakson, “The ‘Quadroon-Placage’ Myth of Antebellum New Orleans: Anglo-American (Mis)interpretations of a French-Caribbean Phenomenon,” Journal of Social History 45 (2012): 709–734; Jennifer Spear, Race, Sex, and Social Order in Early New Orleans (Baltimore, 2009).

24. Peter C. Hoffer, The Treason Trials of Aaron Burr (Lawrence, KS, 2008); James Madison to Gov. Claiborne, January 12, 1807, TP, 9:702.

25. J. P. to J. Johnston, February 1, 1810, Folder 1, PALF; Adam Rothman, Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South (Cambridge, MA, 2005).

26. J. Carlyle Sitterston, Sugar Country: The Cane Sugar Industry in the South, 1763–1950 (Lexington, KY, 1953), 3–11; Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge, MA, 1998), 325–357; Stoddard, Sketches, 332–333; C. C. Robin, Voyages dans L’Intérieur de la Louisiane, (Paris, 1807), 109–110; Russell, “Cultural Conflicts,” 55.

27. James Pitot, Observations of the Colony of Louisiana, from 1796 to 1802 (repr. Baton Rouge, LA, 1979), 9; Claiborne to President Jefferson, November 25, 1804, TP, 9:340; Gilbert Leonard to Claiborne, January 25, 1804, TP, 9:172. On Louisiana importing only a few thousand slaves before 1801 to 1804: TASTD; Rothman, Slave Country, 89–91.

28. John Watkins to Claiborne, February 2, 1804, WCCC, 2:10–11; Claiborne to Madison, July 5, 1804, March 10, 1804, ibid.; cf. Claiborne to Albert Gallatin, May 8, 1804, ibid., 2:235–237, 25–26, 134; Annals of Congress, vol. 14, 1595–1608; W. E. B. DuBois, Suppression of the African Slave-Trade to the United States (New York, 1896), 89–90; James E. Scanlon, “A Sudden Conceit: Jefferson and the Louisiana Government Bill,” Louisiana History 9 (1968): 139–162; Sarah P. Russell, “Ethnicity, Commerce, and Community on Lower Louisiana’s Plantation Frontier,” Louisiana History 40 (1999): 396–399; Robinson, S lavery in American Politics, 398; Claiborne to President Jefferson, November 25, 1804, TP, 9:340; “Act for Organization of Orleans Territory,” March 26, 1804, TP, 9:202–213. Southerners and their congressional allies, including John Quincy Adams, defeated an effort to free all slaves imported into the territory.

29. McMillin, Final Victims, Appendix B; Claiborne to Madison, May 8, 1804, WCCC, 2:134, 358–361; Claiborne to President Jefferson, November 25, 1804, TP, 9:340; Rothman, S lave Country, 92–95; Brown to Gallatin, December 11, 1805, TP, 9:545–547.

30. Frederic Bancroft, Slave-Trading in the Old South (Baltimore, 1931), 300n19; Claiborne to A. Jackson, December 23, 1801; John Hutchings to Jackson, December 25, 1801, CAJ, 1:265, 266.

31. Claiborne to R. Smith, May 15, 1809, WCCC, 4:354–355; Paul Lachance, “The 1809 Immigration of the St. Domingue Refugees,” in Carl Brasseaux and Glenn Conrad, eds., The Road to Louisiana: The Saint-Domingue Refugees, 1792–1809 (Lafayette, LA, 1992), 246–252; Paul Lachance, “The Foreign French,” in Arnold Hirsch and Joseph Logsdon, eds., Creole New Orleans: Race and Americanization (Baton Rouge, LA, 1992), 101–130; Extrait des documents, 1804; Dautouville to Miltenberger, July 1806, both Miltenberger Papers, SHC. Some of the French nationals came to Cuba from Saint-Domingue shortly after 1791, and some as late as 1803. Some of those denominated as “slaves” in the migration to Louisiana had been transported to Cuba from Saint-Domingue, while others had been bought there as slaves in the up to eighteen years that French nationals had spent in Cuba. See Rebecca J. Scott, “Paper Thin: Freedom and Re-Enslavement in the Diaspora of the Haitian Revolution,” Law and History Review 29, no. 4 (2011): 1061–1087.

32. Claiborne to R. Smith, July 29, 1809, WCCC, 4:391–393.

33. James Mather to Claiborne, July 18, 1809, WCCC, 4:387–409; Claiborne to Julien Poydras, May 29, 1809, ibid., 4:371–372; Claiborne to R. Smith, May 20, 1809, ibid., 4:363–367; Claiborne to William Savage, November 10, 1809, ibid., 5:4–6; Annals of Congress, 11th Cong., Pt. 1, 462–465, “House Debate on Emigrants from Cuba.”

34. “Aux Arrivans de Cuba: On prendrait à loyer... une trentaine de nègres de hache & quelques négresses de travail,” Moniteur de la Louisiane, August 5, 1809; “Vente a L’Encan,” ibid., October 7, 1809; HALL, 60131, 54165; F. Carrere à Miltenberger, April 18, 1809, and Miltenberger to N. Fournier, September 27, 1809, Miltenberger Papers, SHC. Italics added.

35. Don Dodd and Wynelle Dodd, Historical Statistics of the United States (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1973–1976); R. Claiborne to Madison, December 31, 1806, TP, 9:692–702.

36. LC, November 19, 1810; LG, December 6, 1810, July 24, 1810.

37. Quartier Générale, January 13, 1811, “Interrogation du Cupidon,” January 13, 1811, SCPOA; HALL; Thomas Marshall Thompson, “National Newspaper and Legislative Reactions to Louisiana’s Deslondes Slave Revolt of 1811,” Louisiana History 33 (1992): 5–29; James H. Dormon, “The Persistent Specter: Slave Rebellion in Territorial Louisiana,” Louisiana History 18 (1977): 389– 404; Richmond Enquirer, February 22, 1811, reported as leader “Charles, a yellow fellow, the property of Mr. Andre”; LG, January 11, 1811; Albert Thrasher, On to New Orleans! Louisiana’s Heroic 1811 Slave Revolt (New Orleans, 1996), 297; Rothman, Slave Country.

38. Trial Augustin, February 25, 1811, SCPOA, 1811, no. 20; Glenn Conrad, The German Coast: Abstracts of the Civil Records of St. Charles and St. John the Baptist Parishes, 1804–1812 (Lafayette, LA, 1981), 108.

39. Claiborne to Wade Hampton, January 7 (1 & 2), 1811, WCCC, 5:91–92.

40. Interrogation “Koock,” January 14, 1811, SCPOA; Mary Ann Sternberg, Along the River Road: Past and Present on Louisiana’s Historic Byway (Baton Rouge, LA, 1996), 130; Moniteur, January 15, 1811; Thrasher, On to New Orleans, 268.

41. Jupiter interrogation from “Jugement du Nègre de M. Andry,” February 20, 1811, no. 17, SCPOA.

42. Numbers from HALL; Deposition of Hermogène Trepagnier, SCPOA, no. 20.

43. Thrasher, On to New Orleans, 119n42, n46, n49, 52–53.

44. Moniteur, January 17, 1811.

45. Destrehan’s compensation claim, SCPOA, 160.

46. Moniteur, January 17, 1811; Manuel Andry to Claiborne, LC, January 15, 1811; Hampton to Sec. of War, January 16, 1811, TP, 9:918–919; Hampton to Claiborne, January 12, 1811, TP, 9:916–917.

47. Conrad, German Coast.

48. Moniteur, January 17, 1811; Barthelemy compensation list from SCPOA; Samuel Hambleton to David Porter, January 15, 1811, in Stanley Engerman, Seymour Drescher, and Robert L. Paquette, eds., Slavery (New York, 2001), 326.

49. January 14, 1811, SCPOA: “Amar, chef de brigandes, dénoncé comme tel par tous les autres brigandes, n’a pas peu répondre aux questions quand lui a adressées, parce qu’il l’était bless’e à la gorge, de manière à être pincé de l’usàge de la parole” (Amar, chief of rebels, denounced as such by all the other rebels, was not able to respond to questions when asked, because he had been wounded in the throat, in such a way as to prevent him from speaking.”

50. SCPOA, “State of the Work Forces”; Thrasher, On to New Orleans, 64–65.

51. SCPOA Act 2, 3–4.

52. TP, 9:923, 702; and a key point of Rothman, Slave Country.

53. Claiborne to Andry, December 24, 1811, WCCC, 6:15; Junius P. Rodriguez, “Always ‘En Garde’: The Effect of Rebellion upon the Louisiana Mentality, 1811–1815,” Louisiana History 33, no. 4 (1992): 399–416. Just to be certain that free people of color could not assist rebellion, Louisiana passed new laws that increased taxes on free men of color and forbade them to carry weapons—even walking sticks, which could hide saber blades.

54. Matthew Mason, Slavery and Politics in the Early American Republic (Chapel Hill, NC, 2006); Speech of Josiah Quincy, Annals, 11th Cong., 3rd sess., 525, 540.

55. Robert Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767–1821 (New York, 1977), 247–250; Alexander Walker, Jackson and New Orleans: An Authentic Narrative of the Memorable Achievements of the American Army (Cincinnati, 1856).

56. Remini, Jackson and American Empire, 133–216; James Parton, Lif e of Jackson (New York, 1860), 1:88–94.

57. Remini, Jackson and American Empire, 246–254.

58. For Indian slave owners, see, among many other excellent works, Christina Snyder, Slavery in Indian Country: The Changing Face of Captivity in Early America (Cambridge, MA, 2010); Tiya Miles, Ties That Bind: The Story of an Afro-Cherokee Family in Slavery and Freedom (Berkeley, CA, 2005).

59. Remini, Jackson and American Empire, 187–233.

60. Arsène Latour, Historical Memoir of the War in West Florida and Louisiana in 1814–1815, ed. Gene Smith (Gainesville, FL, 1999), 294–297; Caryn Cossé Bell, Revolution, Romanticism, and the Afro-Creole Protest Tradition in Louisiana, 1718–1868 (Baton Rouge, LA, 1997), 51–59.

61. Parton, Lif e of Jackson, 2:63; CAJ, 2:118–119.

62. Latour, Historical Memo ir, 137–152; Remini, Jackson and American Emp ire, 276–289.

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