Chapter 5. Tongues: 1819–1824

1. Lucy Thurston, AS, S1, 10.5 (MS), 2113.

2. Sophia Word, AS, 16.2 (KY), 67; Silas Jackson, AS, 16.3 (MD); Ank Bishop, 6.1 (AL), 37; Lucinda Washington, 6.1 (AL), 410; cf. Vincent Brown, The Reaper’s Garden: Death and Power in the World of Atlantic Slavery (Cambridge, MA, 2008).

3. Ann Ulrich Evans, AS, 11.2 (MO), 118.

4. Lucy Thurston, AS, S1, 10.5 (MS), 2113.

5. Jos. Sheppard to Jas. & Jn. Sheppard, October 17, 1843, James Sheppard Papers, Duke; Sophia Nobody to Sally Amis, June 7, 1858, Fol. 45, Eliz. Blanchard Papers, SHC; Margaret Nickens, AS, 11.2 (MO), 264; GSMD, 45–46, 202.

6. L. A. Finley to Hackett, May 18, 1854, Gordon-Hackett Papers, SHC; Jordan Connelly[?] to H. Brown, October 17, 1833, Fol. 55, Hamilton Brown Papers, SHC; S. Amis to Grandmother, December 22, 1836, Fol. 40, Eliz. Blanchard Papers, SHC; “Hermitage” Account 1820–1822, Miltenberger Papers, SHC; Sim Neal to Mother Sisters Brothers, [1827], Neal Papers, SHC; William Anderson, Life and Narrative of William Anderson... (Chicago, 1857), 18.

7. Brian W. Thomas, “Power and Community: The Archaeology of Slavery at the Hermitage Plantation,” American Antiquity 63 (1998): 531–551; Henry C. Bruce, The New Man: Twenty-Nine Years a Slave (York, PA, 1895), 52–56; Henry Bibb, Narrative of the Lif e and Adventures of Henry Bibb, an American Slave (New York, 1849), 25–28; William Grimes, Life of William Grimes, Written by Himself (New York, 1825), 29.

8. Charles Ball, Slavery in the United States: A Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Charles Ball... (New York, 1837), 157, 165; Octavia Albert, The House of Bondage: Or, Charlotte Brooks and Other Slaves (New York, 1890), 6.

9. Albert, House of Bondage, 4–5; Prudhomme Family Papers, SHC; Brashear Family Papers, SHC; Slack Family Papers, SHC; Michael D. Picone, “Anglophone Slaves in Francophone Louisiana,” American Speech 78 (2003): 404–443; Elisha Garey, AS, 12.2 (GA), 2.

10. Sarah P. Russell, “Cultural Conflicts and Common Interests: The Making of the Sugar Planter Class in Louisiana, 1795–1853” (PhD diss., University of Maryland, 2000), 327–328; Herbert Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750–1925 (New York, 1976), 165; Edgar Schneider, American Earlier Black English: Morphological and Syntactic Varieties (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1988), 231–235, 255, 275–278; Salikoko Mufwene, “Some Inferences About the Development of African-American English,” in Shana Poplack, ed., The English History of African-American English (Malden, MA, 2000), 246–248; John McWhorter, “Recovering the Origin,” 337–366, in his Defining Creole (New York, 2006).

11. Ball, Slavery in the United States, 189, 264–266.

12. John Brown, Slave Lif e in Georgia (London, 1855), 23–24, 28–30.

13. Ball, Slavery in the United States, 192–193.

14. T. Bryarly to S. Bryarly, February 26, 1847, Bryarly Papers, Duke; Margaret Brashear to Frances, July 10, 1832, Brashear Papers, SHC; G. Henry to [wife], December 2, 1837, Gustavus Henry Papers, SHC; Isham Harrison to T. Harrison, January 20, 1837, James Harrison Papers, SHC; Roderick C.McDonald, “Independent Economic Production,” in Ira Berlin and Philip D. Morgan, eds., Cultivation and Culture: Labor and the Shaping of Slave Life in the Americas (Charlottesville, VA, 1993), 200–204; Dylan Penningroth, The Claims of Kinfolk: African American Property and Kinship in the Nineteenth-Century South (Chapel Hill, NC, 2003).

15. Anthony Abercrombie, AS, 6.1 (AL), 7; Dylan Penningroth, “My People, My People,” in Edward E. Baptist and Stephanie M.H. Camp, eds., New Studies in the History of American Slavery (Athens, GA, 2006).

16. Willentz, Rise of American Democracy, 72–140; William Lee Miller, Arguing About Slavery: The Great Battle in the United States Congress (New York, 1996), 168–169.

17. Matthew Carey, A Calm Address to the People of the Eastern States, on the Subject of the Representation of Slaves (Boston, 1814); Worthington C. Ford, ed., Writings of John Quincy Adams (New York, 1913–1917), 3:71; Sidney E. Morse, The New States: Or, A Comparison of the Wealth, Strength, and Population of the Northern and Southern States (Boston, 1813); James Pearse, Narrative of the Life of James Pearse (Rutland, VT, c. 1826); H. Bellenden Ker, Travels Through the Western Interior of the United States (Elizabethtown, NJ, 1816), 43–50; Glover Moore, The Missouri Controversy, 1819–1821 (Lexington, KY, 1953), 11.

18. Boynton Merrill, Jefferson’s Nephews: A Frontier Tragedy (Princeton, NJ, 1976); James Simeone, Democracy and Slavery in Frontier Illinois: The Bottomland Republic (DeKalb, IL, 2000); Suzanne Cooper Guasco, “‘The Deadly Influence of Negro Capitalists’: Southern Yeomen and Resistance to the Expansion of Slavery in Frontier Illinois,” Civil Wa r History 41, no. 1 (2001): 7–29.

19. R. Douglas Hurt, Agriculture and Slavery in Missouri’s Little Dixie (Columbia, MO, 1992).

20. William R. Johnson, “Prelude to the Missouri Compromise,” Arkansas Historical Quarterly 24, no. 1 (1965): 47–66.

21. Moore, Missouri Controversy; “Mr. King’s Speeches,” NR, December 4, 1819; JQA, February 20, 1820, 4:528–529; Stuart Leiberger, “Thomas Jefferson and the Missouri Crisis: An Alternative Interpretation,” JER 17, no. 1 (1997): 121–130.

22. Daniel Webster et al., A Memorial to the Congress of the United States, on the Subject of Restraining the Increase of Slavery in States to Be Admitted to the Union (Boston, 1819); Joseph D. Learned, A View of the Policy of Permitting Slaves in the States West of the Mississippi (Baltimore, 1820); William Plumer, quoted in Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (New York, 2005), 231.

23. JQA, February 11, 1820, 4:524, July 5, 1819, 4:398.

24. JQA, February 24, 1820, 4:530–531.

25. Wilentz, Rise of American Democracy, 232–234; Matthew Mason, “The Maine and Missouri Crisis: Competing Priorities and Northern Slavery Politics in the Early Republic,” JER 33, no. 4 (2013): 675–700.

26. Matthew Crocker, “The Missouri Compromise, the Monroe Doctrine, and the Southern Strategy,” Journal of the West 43 (2004): 45–52. The crisis was not over. Missouri passed a state constitution banning free people of African descent—violating, said free-state congressmen, the US Constitution’s “rights and privileges” clause.

27. Francis Fedric, Slave Life in Virginia and Kentucky, O r, Fifty Years of Slavery... (London, 1853), 47–51; Harry Smith, Fifty Years of Slavery in the United States of America (Grand Rapids, MI, 1891), 37–38; cf. L. A. Horton to R. Horton, October 3, 1830, Wyche-Otey papers, SHC, reporting Alabama corn-shucking; Roger D. Abrahams, Singing the Master: The Emergence of African-American Culture in the Plantation South (New York, 1992).

28. Shane White and Graham White, The Sounds of Slavery: Discovering African American History Through Songs, Sermons, and Speech (Boston, 2006), 66–68; “Dark,” Frank Monefee, AS, 6.1 (AL), 280; “Speculator,” Eliza Washington, AS, 11.1 (AR), 52; “Polk,” Joseph Holmes, AS, 6.1 (AL), 193; “Boss man,” Lucindy Jurdon, AS, 6.1 (AL), 243.

29. Henry Walker, AS, 11.1 (AR), 34; Eliza Washington, AS, 11.1 (AR), 52.

30. Fedric, Slave Life, 50–51.

31. Josiah Henson, Truth Stranger Than Fiction: Father Henson’s Story of His Own Life (Boston, 1858), 6–7; Benjamin Latrobe, Impressions Respecting New Orleans: Diary and Sketches, 1818–1820, ed. Samuel Wilson Jr. (New York, 1951), 49–51; William Wells Brown, My Southern Home, Or the South and Its People (Boston, 1880), 121–124; Dena Epstein, Sinful Tunes and Spirituals: Black Folk Music to the Civil Wa r (Urbana, IL, 1977), 95–99; cf. Henry B. Fearon, Sketches of America: A Narrative of a Journey of Five Thousand Miles Through the Eastern and Western States of America (London, 1819), 276–278; Henry C. Knight, Letters from the South and West (Boston, 1824), 127; Freddi W. Evans, Congo Square: African Roots in New Orleans (Lafayette, LA, 2011).

32. James K. Kinnaird, “Who Are Our National Poets?” Knickerbocker Magazine 26 (1845): 331–341.

33. Ibid.; Portia Maultsby, “Africanisms in African-American Music,” from Joseph Holloway, ed., Africanisms in American Culture (Bloomington, IN, 1990).

34. Eli Sagan, Citizens and Cannibals: The French Revolution, The Struggle for Modernity, and the Origins of Ideological Terror (Lanham, MD, 2001), 187–190; Marshall Berman, All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity (New York, 1982). A classic claim that African Americans were merely imitators, not creators, appears in Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (New York, 1984 [Library of America]), 266–267; cf. Ronald Radano, “Hot Fantasies: American Modernism and the Idea of Black Rhythm,” in Ronald Radano and Philip V. Bohlman, eds., Music and the Racial Imagination (Chicago, 2000), 459–480. This lack, the story implied, had consequences in the economic realm. Primitive economies were allegedly stuck on starvation-mode because incompletely realized individuals were unwilling to try new ideas, accepting stale orthodoxies rather than seeking growth through entrepreneurial innovation.

35. Hattie Nettles, AS, 6.1 (AL), 297–298; Eliza White, AS, 6.1 (AL), 412; Solomon Northup, Twelve Years a Slave (Auburn, NY, 1853), 166–168.

36. Sara Colquitt, AS, 6.1 (AL), 88; White and White, Sounds of Slavery, 67; William Piersen, Black Legacy: America’s Hidden Heritage (Amherst, MA, 1993); George Tucker, Valley of Shenandoah, Or, Memoirs of the Graysons (New York, 1824), 2:116–118; T. C. Thornton, An Inquiry into the History of Slavery; Its Introduction into the United States; Causes of Its Continuance; and Remarks upon the Abolition Tracts of William E. Channing, D.D. (Washington, DC, 1841), 120–122; John Bernard, Retrospections of America, 1797–1811 (New York, 1887), 207, 214; Epstein, Sinful Tunes, 139.

37. George Strickland, AS, 6.1 (AL), 359; Jacob D. Green, Narrative of the Life of J. D. Green (Huddersfield, UK, 1864), 12–13.

38. J. W. Loguen, The Rev. J. W. Loguen as a Slave and a Freeman (Syracuse, NY, 1859), 115; Northup, Twelve Years a Slave, 216–222; Albert Murray, “Improvisation and the Creative Process,” in Robert O’Meally, ed., The Jazz Cadence of American Life (New York, 1998), 111–113.

39. William D. Piersen, personal communication; Northup, Twelve Years a Slave, 180–182; cf. Tommie Shelby, We Who Are Dark: The Philosophical Foundations of Black Solidarity (Cambridge, MA, 2005).

40. Eric Lott, Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class (New York, 1993); David Roediger, Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (New York, 1991).

41. Robert Cantwell, Bluegrass Breakdown: The Making of the Old Southern Sound (Urbana, IL, 1984).

42. Ball, Slavery in the United States, 122–124, 382.

43. John Hope Franklin and Loren F. Schweniger, Runaway Slaves: Rebels on the Plantation (New York, 1999), 279.

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