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47. Figures of identity (equivalence): simile, synonyms-substitutes and synonyms-specifiers.
Simile expresses likeness between different objects (Kukharenko); a partial identification of two objects belonging to different spheres or bringing together some of their qualities (Marakhovsky).
An implied simile is used when formal markers of comparison are substituted by notional words or semi-notional words (resemble, seem, remind): A girl resembled a rose.
Trite simile – without any stylistic value.
Simile can be classified into four groups according to the nature of “terrium comparazionis” (ground for comparison):
a. of quality: e.g. A woman moved like a fountain troubled.
b. of action: e.g. The clocks in the office jumped about like sailors during the storm.
c. of relation: e.g. Her anger dispersed before his humor like a foam before breeze.
d. of analogy
Simile may be expressed by means of the following structural variants:
According to the structure:
In a simple simile the vehicle is expressed briefly and directly.
In a sustained simile the likeness is not only expressed but further developed into a vivid micropicture.
Simile and metaphor are different in their linguistic nature.
Synonyms-substitutes – are words used to denote an object or action, supplementing new additional details, which helps to avoid monotonous repetition: e.g. The little boy was crying; it was the child’s usual time to go to bed but no one played attention to the kid.
They are characterized by contextual similarity giving rise to emotive-evaluative meaning. That’s why some synonyms can be treated as such only in context and regarded as situational synonyms. E.g. She told his name to the trees. She whispered it to the flowers. She breezed it to the birds.
Synonyms-specifiers – are used to characterize different aspects of the same referent, to describe the object in a thorough, profound and detailed way; the speaker composes a chain of synonymic words of the same syntactic function. E.g. It’s weak and silly of me, I’m sick and tired of your noise.
Their function is to intensify the emotional value of the utterance.
48. Figures of opposition: antithesis, oxymoron.
Antithesis – is a stylistic device which presents two contrasting ideas in close proximity in order to stress the contrast.
We may distinguish three varieties of antithesis.
a) opposition of features possessed by the same referent.
E.g. Some people have much to live on and little to live for (O.Wilde)
The purpose of this device is to show complex and contradictory nature of the object of speech.
b) opposition of two or more different reference having contrasting features.
The device serves to underline their incompatibility:
‘ Large houses are still occupied while weavers’ cottages stand empty. ’ (Gaskell)
‘ His fees were high; his lessons were light. ’ (O. Henry)
c) opposition of reference that embrace a wide range of features.
‘For the old struggle – mere stagnation, and in place of danger and death, the dull monotony of security and the horror of an unending decay!’ (Leacock)
Stylistic antithesis is not only an effective stylistic devise, but as all expressive means it is an expression of inner, elevated contents of speech.
Oxymoron isacombinationoftwowords ( mostly an adjective and a noun or an adverb with an adjective) in which the meaning of the two clashes, being opposite in sense:
‘His honour rooted in dishonour stood
And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true. ’ (Tennyson)
Theoxymoron reveals the contradictory nature of one and the same phenomenon. One of its components discloses some objectively existing feature or quality while the other serves to convey the author’s individual attitude towards the same.
The difference between antithesis and oxymoron is that 1st combines contradicting ideas within a sentence, and 2nd – within an utterance.
There are trite oxymorons (Terribly good, pretty dirty, awfully nice) and original oxymorons (to look their horrid best)
49. Figures of inequality (non-equivalence): climax, anticlimax, pun, zeugma.
Figures of inequality based on:
d) actualizing the emotional power of the utterance (climax, anticlimax);
e) two different meanings of words (pun, zeugma).
Climax presents a structure in which every consecutive sentence or phrase is emotionally stronger or logically more important than the preceding one.
According to Kukharenko it can be of three types:
Anticlimax is counterpart to climax; takes place when the emotional or logical importance is first accumulated and then unexpectedly broken.
Types of anticlimax: 1. gradual drop in intensity
2. sudden break in emotional power.
Pun (witticism, word play) is a humorous use of words which sound the same or of two meanings of the word. Pun is more independent, it doesn’t need a basic component like zeugma.
Classification
1. based on polysemy
2. based on homonymy
3. based on phonetic similarity
Zeugma is a structural arrangement of an utterance in which parallel constructions have unparallel meanings. A zeugmatic construction consists of at least three constituents. The basic word of it stands in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to a couple of adjacent words. The basic word combined with the first adjacent word forms a phraseological word-combination. The same basic word combined with the second adjacent word forms a free word-combination. E.g. She dropped a tear and her pocket handkerchief.
It’s used to create a humoristic effect.
50 The notion of the text! Different approaches to the definition, Basic classifications of text models.
The definition comes from Latin”textum” means “fabric or connection” - any sequence of words ordered according to the rules of a given language system.
Text - is the largest communicative unit, complex sign system, a work of art that serves as means of communication and uses any sign system.
Text is defined as ‘a communicative occurance which needs seven standards of textuality (cohision,coherence,intentanality,acceptability,informativity,situationality,intertextuality).
Text have got two properties: coherence and cohesion.
Coherence property is to give the sensation that one speaks of the same thing.
Cohesion property is a group of mechanism to connect the parts of a text.
Text is the language in use which can be defined as a result of speech acts. Language is a system of mental association of elemanatry signs that exist in individual minds but serve the purpose of social interaction through speech.
Speech is the manifestation of the language system in the process of social intercourse.
Hermeneutics s tudies the process of understanding and interpreting texts.
R.Bogin “to understand the text” means:
1) To get to know the internal links of the text context
2) To comprehend its idea
3) To become familiar with thoughts, feelings realized in the text
4) To move towards the knowledge
5) To recreate the mentions of the author’s in the text
Stylistics deals with texts in two branches:
Lingual and literary stylistic.
Lingual stylistic introduced by Ihrel Baliy in his work “stylistic” covers the system of expressive means used for nomination and communication.
L. Spitzer (an Austrian philologist) laid the foundation of literary stylistic which focuses on the addresse, the message itself.
In Text theory text is a dynamic unit which is realized in real communication
Text linguistics studies aspects of the text:
1) ontologycal aspects concern the linguistic statues of the text, the character of the text’s existense;
2) Gnosiological shows the way the objective reality is reflected in the text
3) Linguistic aspect deals with linguistic make-up of the text
4) Pragmatic focuses on the way the author of the text views and interprets the objective reality
5) Psychological is oriented towards the reader perception of the text.
There are two types of text:
1) according to channel (oral and written)
2) according to structure message (literary, humanistic, scientific-technician, juridical, administrative, advertising, colloquial and journalistic).
Gindin differentiates three types of text models:
1) Fixed - in which the form and content are fixed; law agreements
2) Usual- which a certain compositional scheme of components;
3) Free or flexible which are not subject to a strict modeling: publicistic, fiction
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