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e.g. Synthetic polymers, such as PVC, are cheap.
10) COMPARISON
As … as / than / half as … as / nothing like / the … the / twice as
e.g. He finds history easier than geography.
11) MANNER
As / (in) the way / how / the way in which / (in) the same way (as) / as if / as though
e.g. The manager explained how the organisation could increase productivity.
12) CONDITION
If / in case / assuming (that) / on condition (that) / provided (that) / providing (that) / unless / in the event (that) / in the event of / as/so long as / granted/granting (that) / whether / whether … or / only if / even if / otherwise / or (else) / in case of
e.g. The effects are the same whether the radiation is internal or external.
13) PURPOSE
So that / in order (not) to / in order that / for fear (that) / in case
e.g. You should take a few days off in order to finish your report.
14) TIME
When / whenever / as / while / now (that) / before / until / after / till / since / prior to
e.g. Cells are removed and then engineered prior to their reimplantation.
15) PLACE
Where / wherever
e.g. That’s the university where I studied.
16) EXCEPTION
But (for) / except (for) / apart from
e.g. Apart from the chairman, nobody spoke.
17) RELATIVE
Who / whom / whose / which / what / that
Remember: who is used for people which – for objects and animals
that – for both people and objects
e.g. The man who (whom, that) you saw at the conference was my brother.
18) REFERENCE
Considering / concerning / regarding / with (in) respect/regard/reference to / as to / as for / according to / with reference to / as said by / as reported by / depending on / let us (now) turn to
e.g. According to the first law of thermodynamics, heat and work are inter-convertible.
19) SUMMARISING
Finally / lastly / above all, all in all, taking everything into account / on the whole / all things considered / in conclusion / as I have said / as was previously stated / to sum up / altogether / in short / briefly / to put it briefly / overall / thus
e.g. On the whole, the university offers a wide range of courses and provides modern facilities.
3.2. Match the two halves of the sentences.
| 1. It must be six o’clock. No, actually … 2. If you heat copper to 400°C, it becomes viscous, in other words... 3. The current was too high, as a result... 4. Mercury is a metal, nevertheless... 5. Amphetamines are dangerous, therefore... 6. As a rule,water freezes at 0°C, but... 7. Glass is fragile, thus... 8. The motor was out of date, besides... 9. Hydrocarbons are relatively light, in fact... 10. Water usually boils at 100°C, however... | a) it begins to melt. b) they float on water. c) it should be handled with care. d) they should be kept away from children. e) it does not do so if you add salt. f) the wires began to overheat. g) it consumed too much fuel h) it is a fluid. i) at higher altitudes, the temperature is lower. j) it is five past six. |
3.3. Fill in the gaps with the following linking words:
A) besides / due to / despite the fact / consequently / despite / namely / although / moreover / hence / thereby
1. Atmospheric ionisation, and …….. electrical conductivity, are low.
2. …….. growing new skin, some salamanders can regenerate whole legs.
3. …….. the sea temperature is only 2°C it can be used as an energy source.
4. Energy loss in transformers is …….. resistance.
5. Gases diffuse slowly …….. high molecular speeds.
6. Aluminium is lighter and …….. it is relatively cheep.
7. The mesosphere is important …….. that it contains only about 0.1 per cent of the total mass of the atmosphere.
8. As a rule, aquatic reptiles use the same means of propulsion as fish and whales, …….. they use powerful beats of the tail.
9. The heat increases, …….. the entropy increases.
10. Cells and antibodies may cooperate, …….. destroying invading bacteria.
B) although / conversely / while / therefore / however / clearly / yet / instead of / thanks to / obvious
1. …….., environmental pollution must be drastically reduced.
2. …….. magnesium is a metal, it burns.
3. During the day, plants produce oxygen, …….., at night, they produce CO2.
4. Aluminium is a light metal, …….. lead is a heavy one.
5. The immune system destroys most foreign bodies, ….. bacteria continue to kill us.
6. The data is not accurate, …….. the results are not reliable.
7. Gold can be extracted from sea water, …….. it is not commercially economical.
8. …….. using copper, silver was used.
9. It is now …….. that world climate is changing.
10. …….. a grant, he managed to finish his research.
C) unless / otherwise / since / hence / to sum up / either … or / thereby / whereas / while / regardless of
1. The gas is compressed, …….. increasing the temperature.
2. Fusion will not occur …….. the temperature is raised to a million degrees,
3. Life expectancy for women is 83, …….. for men, it is 79.
4. …….. searching for trilobites the bone fossils were discovered.
5. The transistors must be cooled by liquid nitrogen, …….. they will overheat.
6. Asteroids, …….. size, rotate on their axes every 5 to 20 hours.
7. No hypothesis can be elaborated …….. the data is unreliable.
8. You can buy …….. a diesel …….. a petrol car.
9. Certain stars are much brighter and …….. much larger.
10. …….., the seminar was a complete waste of time.
D) even though / in spite of / regarding / and yet / whereas / except for / in order to / as a rule / nevertheless / actually
1. Write the report …….. the points we discussed last week.
2. Geologists are using radio-active analysis of rocks more, …….. it is not suitable in every case.
3. It was an interesting conference, …….. one speaker who was boring.
4. She applied for the job …….. she wasn’t suitably qualified.
5. London is a very noisy city …….. I like it.
6. I can’t cook …….. my husband can.
7. They introduced new measures …….. control the situation.
8. …….., metals are inflammable.
9. When I was at school I was good at most subjects …….. maths.
10. Most people think that Fleming was the father of penicillin, but …….. most of the work was done by Florey.
E) hardly ever / or else / doubtless / scarcely / unless / via / namely / instead of / the latter / neither ….. nor
1. …….. helium …….. krypton form chemical compounds.
2. Natural hazards, …….., floods, hurricanes and famines, are frequently man-made.
3. Silver may be used …….. using copper.
4. Gold and silver are both precious metals, however the …….. is less expensive.
5. …….. industrial output is reduced, an ecological crisis is inevitable.
6. Pharmacology was …….. well developed in Babylonian civilisation.
7. Temperature can be expressed in Fahrenheit, …….. in Celsius.
8. The importance of Newton can …….. be exaggerated.
9. Apart from carbon, elements …….. …….. form chains of more than 8 atoms.
10. Viruses are spread through the body …….. the blood system.
3.4. Using the following link words develop the ideas given in the sentences below.
● in addition / furthermore / besides
● however / nevertheless / yet / in spite of / on the other hand
● but actually / but in reality / in fact
● obviously / clearly / doubtless
● in general / on the whole / as a rule
● in other words / that is to say / namely
● consequently / therefore / thus
1. Gold is a very expensive metal…
2. The first atomic bomb was dropped in 1945…
3. Oil reserves will run out by the middle of the next century…
4. There is more and more congestion in the town centre…
5. The research process is a rational and straightforward…
6. When the collaboration between IBM and Digital Research failed, IBM turned to Bill Gates, then 25 years old, to write their operating system…
7. Your research philosophy depends on the way that you think about the development of knowledge…
8. The object of the research must be always broader than the subject chosen for research…
9. Nobody needs to be told that theories should be confirmable…
10. We need to be reminded from time to time that we might be wrong…
3.5. Choose the correct answer.
1. The device enables temperatures to be monitored, …. improving the safety margin.
a) thereby b) nevertheless c) namely d) e.g.
2. A new technique, …….. the infra-red camera, means that dust surrounding new stars can be penetrated.
a) whereas b) namely с) besides d) for instance
3. Superconducting, …….. when materials lose all resistance, will boost computer performances.
a) thus b) obviously с) besides d) that is to say
4. Programmable electronic systems are more reliable …….., they can be used to
handle radio-active material.
a) whereas b)such с) moreover d) in other words
5. Computers can process data extremely fast. ……... this, they have several serious drawbacks.
a) in spite of b) whereas с) however d) moreover
6. The new engine is far more efficient. …….. more work is required to reduce noise levels.
a) nevertheless b) whereas c) i.e. d) besides
7. The presence of high concentrations of elements that are rarely found on Earth, …….. iridium, suggests there was a meteorite impact at that spot.
a) on the whole b) moreover c) such as d) that is to say
8. The data is stored on hard disk, …….. it is easily accessible.
a) actually b) whereas с) e.g. d) hence
9. Applicants for the job should speak at least one other European language.... French.
a) obviously b) besides с) moreover d) actually
10. …….., in the initial stages there were minor problems to be overcome, but from then on, the prototypes were perfectly reliable.
a) besides b) as a rule с) namely d) despite
3.6. Read the texts below and replace the words in bold by synonyms or explanations.
A) Globally, forests cover nearly one third of the land area and they contain over 80% of terrestrial biodiversity. Both the extent and quality of forest habitat continue to decrease and the associated loss of biodiversity jeopardizes forest ecosystem functioning and the ability of forests to provide ecosystem services. In the light of the increasing population pressure, it is of major important not only to conserve, but also to restore forest ecosystems.
Moreover ecological restoration has recently started to adopt insights from the biodiversity-ecosystem functioning (BEF) perspective. Obviously central is the focus on restoring the relation between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Here we provide an overview of important considerations related to forest restoration that can be inferred from this BEF-perspective.
Restoring multipleforest functions requires multiple species. It is highly unlikely that species-poor plantations, which may be optimal for above-ground biomass production, will outperform species diverse assemblages for a combination of functions, including overall carbon storage and control over water and nutrient flows. Above all restoring stable forest functions also requires multiple species. In particular in the light of global climatic change scenarios, which predict more frequent extreme disturbances and climatic events, it is important to incorporate insights from the relation between biodiversity and stability of ecosystem functioning into forest restoration projects. Rather than focusing on species per se, focusing on functional diversity of tree species assemblages seems appropriate when selecting tree species for restoration. Finally also plant genetic diversity and above-below-ground linkages should be considered during the restoration process, as these likely have prominent but until now poorly understood effects at the level of the ecosystem.
The BEF-approach provides a useful framework to evaluate forest restoration in an ecosystem functioning context, but it also highlights that much remains to be understood, especially regarding, the relation between forest functioning on the one side and genetic diversity and above-ground-below-ground species associations on the other. On the whole the strong emphasis of the BEF-approach on functional rather than taxonomic diversity mау also be the beginning of a paradigm shift in restoration ecology, increasing the tolerance towards allochthonous species.
B) People are always talking about fundamental research, implying thereby the existence of a nameless opposite. A good definition of fundamental research will certainly be welcomed: let us see whether we can invent one. We have to begin of course, by defining research. Unfortunately the concept of research contains a negative element. Research is searching without knowing what you are going to find: if you know what you are going to find you have already found it, and your activity is not research. Now, since the outcome of your research is unknown, how can you know whether it will be fundamental. We may say for instance that fundamental research is that which you undertake without caring whether the results will be of practical value or not may not be reasonable to go further and say that fundamental research is that which will be abandoned as soon as it shows a sign of leading to results of practical value. By saying this you may limit your own achievement. It will be better to say that fundamental research is that which may have no immediate practical value. I do not think that the definition is very pleasing to the theorists, for some problems are obviously solved more quickly by experimenters than by theorists. Another viewpoint is that theory serves to suggest new experiments. This is sound, but it makes the theorist the handman of the experimentator, and he maybe not like this auxiliary role.
C) Winter Storms Have Grown More Devastating
by Liz Osborn © Current Results Nexus
Severe winter storms that leave behind million of dollars in damage have become less common in the United States over the last five decades. But at the same time, individual storms have become more massive and destructive. Climatologists suspect that these changes in winter weather are a consequence of global warming.
Between 1949 and 2003, the continental US faced 202 catastrophic winter storms, each causing over one million dollars in damage. They dumped freezing rain and snow, usually propelled by strong winds, and in some cases were followed by rapid thawing that led to floods.
The northeastern states were frequently hit by devastating weather. New York had the most storms of any state, at 83, followed by Pennsylvania with 77. Idaho and Arizona got off relatively lightly compared to the rest of the nation, with three severe storms apiece.
The winter storm track, however, has gradually moved farther south. States in the south-central US now see storms more often in winter, particularly Texas where they have doubled in number since the 1960s and 1970s. Overall though, large blizzards have become less common, dropping from an average for the country of 39 per decade to 30.
While there are fewer storms, recent ones cover greater area. During the 1950s and early 1960s, a winter storm would travel through an average of five or six states. By the late 1990s, that figure had nearly doubled to ten states per storm.
Altogether the 202 major blizzards left damage costing $35.2 billion in 2003 US dollars. A single snowstorm that swept through most of the eastern states from March 11 to 14 in 1993 accounted for $1.8 billion of the expense. The eastern half of the continental US received the brunt of losses, amounting to 88% of insurance claims between 1949 to 2003.
Blizzards in recent years have been exceptionally severe and costly. A fiscal calibration of the damage from each storm, used to measure a storm’s intensity, reveals a huge rise in a typical storm’s fury. During the late 1970s, storm cleanup averaged $8.4 million per state. That has climbed to $40 million per state in recent years.
Storms are particularly bigger and more damaging across the southern two-thirds of the country. Average recovery costs per storm in the south have nearly tripled since 1964.
(http://www.currentresults.com/Climate-Change/Weather/winter-708211.php)
D) Agriculture Increases River Flows
by Liz Osborn © Current Results Nexus
Clearing forests to grow crops has added to the amount of water that runs off of land into rivers by 2.5% in North America and 6% in Asia over the last three centuries. That’s because crops pump less moisture into the atmosphere through evaporation and plant transpiration than do forests.
The hydrological impact of converting land to agriculture has been countered somewhat by irrigation. Watering of crops contributes to evapotranspiration while decreasing runoff. Irrigation’s influence on lowering river flows is most evident in the western US and Mexico during summer.
Still, even with irrigation factored in, some regions have considerably altered hydrological cycling since 1700. The greatest extent is in Southeast Asia where water draining into the Pacific Ocean has increased by 11%. In North America, 3.5% more freshwater flows into the Gulf of Mexico.
The largest changes to river flow, though, are the seasonal ones created by dams. In general, reservoirs produce larger runoff volumes in winter and less during spring snowmelt compared with natural regimes. Consequently, modelling of hydrological dynamics shows that reservoirs draining into the Arctic Ocean have caused influxes of water to be 20 to 40% higher in March.
(http://www.currentresults.com/Water/Rivers/agriculture.php)
E) Northern US Forests Have Lost Biodiversity
by Liz Osborn © Current Results Nexus
Researchers conclude that a commonly-held belief, that forests of northern Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan have recovered from rapid, wide-spread logging of over a century ago, is not entirely true. Where trees have grown back, the forests are now quite different from the original ones that were cut down.
Forests throughout the Laurentian Mixed Forest Province are less diverse than their predecessors. In the early 1800s, conifers dominated 59% of an ecoregion’s forests, on average, but now form the canopy in only 32% of forests. Eastern hemlock, pine and tamarack have particularly declined in abundance. Significant reductions have also occurred in forests with large amounts of beech or yellow birch.
Taking the place of these species across the 257,000 km² Great Lakes region are aspen and maple. Forests dominated by aspen have expanded to five times their area before logging, while maples have doubled their cover. These deciduous trees benefit, in part, from current timber harvesting practices.
Consequently, forests throughout northern portions of the three states have become more uniform. Fewer species of trees commonly make up forest canopies, resulting in a loss of biodiversity and structural complexity. The forests have not recovered to what they were in the days before European settlement, but are now entirely new, simplified ecosystems.
In addition, only some of the cleared land has become reforested. On average, 59% of the land area is growing trees now, compared with 88% before clearing began 150 years ago. Agricultural crops and pasturelands have especially replaced forests in Wisconsin and in central portions of Minnesota and Michigan, where unforested land covers 85% of some ecoregions.
(http://www.currentresults.com/Forests/Eastern-NA/northern-708071.php)
F) History of computer science
The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity. Wilhelm Schickard designed the first mechanical calculator in 1623, but did not complete its construction. Blaise Pascal designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator, the Pascaline, in 1642. Charles Babbage designed a difference engine and then a general-purpose Analytical Engine in Victorian times, for which Ada Lovelace wrote a manual. Because of this work she is regarded today as the world’s first programmer. Around 1900, punched card machines were introduced.
During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term computer came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s. The world’s first computer science degree program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science, began at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory in 1953.
Although many initially believed it was impossible that computers themselves could actually be a scientific field of study, in the late fifties it gradually became accepted among the greater academic population. It is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM (short for International Business Machines) released the IBM 704 and later the IBM 709 computers, which were widely used during the exploration period of such devices. “Still, working with the IBM [computer] was frustrating... if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again.” During the late 1950s, the computer science discipline was very much in its developmental stages, and such issues were commonplace.
Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computer science technology. Modern society has seen a significant shift from computers being used solely by experts or professionals to a more widespread user base. Initially, computers were quite costly, and for their most-effective use, some degree of human aid was needed, in part by professional computer operators. However, as computers became widespread and far more affordable, less human assistance was needed, although residues of the original assistance still remained.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science)
3.7. Read the sentences below and substitute the proper English linking devices for the Russian words in brackets.
1. In 1555 Nostradamus predicted the end of the world for AD 3797, (тем не менее) most people think this is rather doubtful.
2. Some scientists now agree that the extinction of the dinosaurs might have been caused by an asteroid impact. I (полностью) support this theory.
3. (Без сомнения) the traditional role of science is to make people healthy and the world a brighter place to live in.
4. (Для того, чтобы) we may know something of the people who invaded England in 1060 we must go back a little.
5. Geography may be defined as the science of the earth’s surface. It is concerned with a number of features, (особенно) physical, climate and products.
6. Australia is the driest continent. (Именно поэтому) some biologists claim that water requirements for agriculture are exhausting the soil and the country is heading for ecological collapse.
7. The effects of global warming are (прежде всего) visible in the Arctic.
8. (Поскольку) you are a postgraduate student you are always pressed of time.
9. (Действительно), a person needs specific knowledge to be able to talk of the things that are far from being everyone’s competence.
10. Previous experiments in this area were (очевидно) unsuccessful. (Более того), they were limited in scale and material.
11. (Что касается) to population, Egypt is much bigger than Canada.
12. (Хотя) Belgium has the largest percentage arable land area, it has the smallest percentage agricultural pollution.
3.8. Read the text below and substitute the proper English linking devices for the Russian words in brackets.
CLIMATE
A) (За) the last hundred years the climate has been growing much warmer. This has had a number of different effects. (С) the beginning of the twentieth century, glaciers have been melting very rapidly. (Например), the Muir Glacier in Alaska has retreated two miles in ten years. (Во-вторых), rising, temperatures have been causing the snowline to retreat on mountains all over the world. In Peru, (например), it has risen as much as 2700 feet in 60 years.
(В результате) of this, vegetation has also been changing. In Canada, the agricultural cropline has shifted 50 to 100 miles northward. In the same way cool-climate trees (такие как) birches and spruce have been dying over large areas of Eastern Canada. In Sweden the treeline has moved up the mountains by (вплоть до) 65 feet since 1930.
The distribution of wildlife has also been affected, many European animals moving northwards into Scandinavia. (С) 1918, 25 new species of birds have been seen in Greenland, and in the United States birds have moved their nests to the north.
(В конце концов) the sea has been rising at a rapidly increasing rate, (в основном благодаря), as was mentioned above, to the melting of glaciers. In the last 18 years it has risen by about six inches, which is about four times the average rate of rise (за последние) 9000 years.
3.9. Read the following text carefully. Then complete the table after it.
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