A full stop is used in the following cases:
● at the end of a declarative sentence;
● to mark the end of indirect questions;
● between dollars and cents, pounds and pence: $ 4.75; ₤ 3.40;
● to indicate decimals: 0.85;
● with abbreviations that end in a lower-case letter, e.g.:
- titles: Capt., Hon., Prof.;
- months: Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec.;
- other uses: i.e., e.g., a.m., p.m., vol., B.C., A.D., Ave.
In British English there is a growing tendency to avoid full stops in all abbreviations, but especially in those which involve the first and last letter in the word, e.g., in British English the titles Mr, Mrs, Ms, Dr are not followed by a full stop.
The British also now tend to avoid full stops after initials, so many people write: Dr J Jones.
Americans generally prefer: Dr. J. Jones, T.S. Elliot, John F. Kennedy.
The names of organizations have capital letters but no full stops when they are written as initials: NATO, FBI, IRS.
Question Mark (?)
● Use a question mark after a direct question.
What are you doing here?
● Do not use a question mark after a reported or indirect question.
He asked me how he could get to the railway station.
Exclamation mark (!) (Am. E. exclamation point)
● Use an exclamation mark after a sentence that expresses strong emotion or unusual emphasis.
I have won the lottery!
Call an ambulance!
Ellipses (…)
● Ellipses are three spaced full stops that are used to indicate omissions within quotations.
In his classic essay on James Fenimore Cooper’s prose style, Mark Twain reminds us that ‘… an author’s way of setting forth his matter is called his style ….’
The ellipses indicate that the writer is using only part of Twain’s sentence.
Notice that the final ellipsis includes an extra full stop to conclude the writer’s own sentence.
All at once a great storm arose on the lake ….
Question marks and exclamation marks are sometimes combined with ellipses (?… and!…).
‘The men were astonished at what had happened and exclaimed, “What sort of man is this?…”’ (If the question mark were omitted, the meaning of the quotation would be obscured.)
‘So they came and woke Him up, crying, “Save us, Lord!”…’ (The exclamation mark is retained to preserve the meaning of the quotation.)
● Sometimes ellipses are used to show dramatic pauses in a sentence.
NASA had just announced that he no longer had … the right stuff.
Comma (,)
● Use a comma to separate items (words, phrases, clauses) in a series.
The colours of our flag are white, blue and red.
Today the students are using computers when they study, when they work, and when they play.
Notice that the comma before the “and” that connects the last two items is optional.
● Do not use a comma if every item in a series is joined with a connector.
He ate bacon and eggs and toast and jam for breakfast.
● Use a comma to separate the items in an address or date.
16 Brotherton Avenue, Dorchester, Dorset;
25 September, 2004;
On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was signed in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Commas are used with full dates (i.e., month, day, and year) but may be omitted with partial dates (i.e., month and year).
And it was on July 4, 1962, that the seven Mercury astronauts moved to Houston.
In June 1983 Willie Scott decided to give New York a try.
Commas are required between most of the elements in place names and addresses.
Writing Lab, University of California, Riverside
But a comma is not used between state and zip code.
5625 Waverly Avenue, La Jolla, California 92037
● Use a comma in direct address.
How do you do, lawyer?
May I explain, Phil?
Actually, Father, I haven’t decided on law school.
● Use a comma after a non-finite or verbless clause at the beginning of the sentence.
To get there on time, she left half an hour early.
Happy and contented, the cat fell asleep.
● Use a comma to separate an introductory word or phrase (e.g. therefore, however, by the way, for instance, moreover, besides, firstly, actually). It is essential after long phrases, and to avoid ambiguity.
In fact, I don’t even know her name.
As usual, there was one objection.
At about eleven-thirty, I walked him to his car.
After all these years, she knew the story by heart.
● Use a comma after a subordinate clause, which comes before the main clause.
As she walked into the bar, there was music.
When she turned the corner, she saw him having coffee with Evelyn at her desk.
● Use a comma before and after a relative clause, or phrase in apposition, which gives more information about the noun it follows.
The Pennine Hills, which have been a favourite with hikers for many years, are situated between Lancashire and Yorkshire.
Queen Elizabeth ΙΙ, a very popular monarch, celebrated her Silver Jubilee in 1977.
● Use a comma before and after any element which interrupts the sentence.
The fire, although it had been burning for several hours, was still blazing fiercely.
You should, indeed you must, report the matter to the police.
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| Capital Letters | | | Exercise 7. Combine the following sentences using appositives. |