Buckingham Palace

Buckingham Palace is the official London residence of the British monarch. The Palace is a setting for state occasions and royal entertaining, a base for many officially visiting Heads of State, and a major tourist attraction. It has been a rallying point for British people at times of national rejoicing, crisis or grief. ‘Buckingham Palace’ or simply ‘The Palace’ commonly refers to the source of Press statements issued by the offices of the Royal Household.

In the Middle Ages, Buckingham Palace's site formed part of the Manor of Ebury. It had several Royal owners from Edward the Confessor onwards and was also the object of much property speculation.

The State Rooms form the nucleus of the working Palace and are used regularly by The Queen and members of the Royal family for official and State entertaining. Buckingham Palace is one of the world's most familiar buildings and more than 50,000 people visit the Palace each year as guests to banquets, lunches, dinners, receptions and the Royal Garden Parties.

State banquets also take place in the Ballroom. These formal dinners take place on the first evening of a state visit by a visiting Head of State. On these occasions, often over 150 guests are in formal ‘white tie and decorations’ including tiaras for women, dine off gold plate. The largest and most formal reception at Buckingham Palace takes place every November, when the Queen entertains members of the foreign diplomatic corps resident in London. On this occasion all the state rooms are in use, as the entire Royal Family proceeds through them, beginning their procession through the great north doors of the Picture Gallery.

Today, Buckingham Palace is not only the home of the Queen and Prince Philip but also the London residence of the Duke of York and the Earl and Countess of Essex. The palace also houses the office of the monarchy and its associated functions.

In addition to being the weekday home of the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh, the palace is the workplace of 450 people. Every year some 50,000 people are entertained at garden parties, receptions, audiences, and banquets. The forecourt of Buckingham Palace is used for Changing of the Guard, a major ceremony and tourist attraction.

The palace is not the private property of the Queen; Windsor Castle and Buckingham Palace and their art collections belong to the nation. The priceless furnishings, paintings, fittings and other artefacts, many by Fabergé, from Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle are known collectively as the Royal Collection; owned by the nation, they can be viewed by the public when the palace and castle are open to the public at various times of the year.

St Paul's Cathedral

St Paul's Cathedral is a cathedral on Ludgate Hill, in the City of London, England and the seat of the Bishop of London. The present building dates from the 17th century, and is generally reckoned to be London's fourth St Paul's Cathedral, although the number is higher if every major medieval reconstruction is counted as a new cathedral. The cathedral is one of London's most visited sites.

The task of designing a structure was assigned to Christopher Wren in 1668, along with over fifty other City churches. His first design was rejected in 1669. The second design, in the shape of a Greek cross was rejected as too radical. The 'warrant' design was accepted in 1675 and building work began in June. This design included a smaller dome with a spire on top, however King Charles II had given Wren permission to make ‘ornamental’ changes to the approved design, and Wren took the liberty to radically rework the design to the current form, including the large central dome and the towers at the West end. The cathedral was completed on October 20, 1708, Wren's 76th birthday (although the first service was held on December 2, 1697).

The British Royal Family holds most of their important marriages, christenings and funerals at Westminster Abbey, but St Paul's was used for the marriage of Charles, Prince of Wales and Lady Diana Spencer.

The cathedral is open to the public, though there is a charge for non-worshipping visitors. In 2000, the cathedral began a major restoration programme, scheduled for completion in 2008, to celebrate the 300th anniversary of its opening. The restoration programme is expected to cost £40 million, and involves not only repair and cleaning of the building, but also improvement of visitor facilities - such as accessibility for the disabled, and provision of additional educational facilities.

Because of its prominent and recognizable form on the skyline, a view which is protected from many vantage points, St Paul's is often used in movies as part of an establishing shot to place the viewers in London.

Soho

Soho is an area of central London's West End, in the borough of the City of Westminster. It is an area of approximately one square mile bounded by Oxford Street to the north, Regent Street to the west, Shaftesbury Avenue to the south, and Charing Cross Road to the east.

The area which is now Soho was grazing farmland until 1536 when it was taken by Henry VIII as a royal park for the Palace of Whitehall. The name Soho first appears in the 17th century. The name is derived from a shortening of Somerset House, a grand palace to be found to the south of the strand, built in 1547. It is part of Soho folklore that the area’s name derives from the ancient ‘soho!’ hunting call; though by the time the name was in use, hunting had ceased in the area. The name is also believed to have come from the nickname of the Duke of Monmouth who used ‘soho’ as a rallying call for his men, and who in the 1600s was among the first to build in the area. There is an indication that he may have given one of his houses the name Soho.

Soho is a small, multicultural area of central London which is home to industry, commerce, culture and entertainment, as well as a residential area for both rich and poor. For centuries it has housed waves of immigrants: the French church in Soho Square is witness to its position as a centre for French Huguenots in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Soho is famed for its many clubs, pubs, bars, and restaurants, as well as late night coffee shops that give the street an ‘open all night’ feel at the weekends.

Soho is near the heart of London's theatre area, and is a centre of the independent film and video industry as well as the television and film post-production industry. It is home to Soho Theatre, purpose built in 2000 to present new plays and stand-up comedy.

Why do the British like going to the pub?

One of the main attractions of the pub for all regular pub goers is that it offers good company in friendly surroundings. Where else can you appear as a complete stranger and at once be able to join in a conversation with a diverse group of people? Often the style of the pub and its locality will dictate the kind of clientele you can expect to find there. Village pubs with their country furnishings and real ales attract not only local folk but city dwellers out for a drive, hikers fresh from a long day's walk and pensioners enjoying a pub lunch. City pubs tend to have a more mixed clientele - businessmen and women discussing the latest deal, theatregoers or groups of friends enjoying a drink together before going off to a restaurant or nightclub.

Good conversation and good beer are two essential items provided by the pub. The drinking of beer in a public house is not compulsory, but as any publican will tell you, beer remains the mainstay of the trade. It is said that beer is the perfect drink for the pub - it comes in large measures (one pint glasses) so that just one drink provides plenty of conversation time! Many pubs also serve food, from snacks to full meals.

Other attractions offered by city and country pubs alike include a game of darts (short, weighted steel darts are thrown at a circular dartboard numbered in sections) and snooker, a game similar to billiards.

The lure of the pub can lie in the variety of pub names; each pub has its own name, depicted on a painted inn sign hung outside the premises.

A pub name can refer to historical events, landmarks, sundry beasts or its meaning can be a complete puzzle. Some include references to animals, many with their origins in heraldry - the White Hart, the Nag's Head, the Black Bull, and the Bear to name but a few!

What is the most popular food in Britain?

Britain's most popular 'fast food' has got to be fish and chips. Fish and chip shops first made an appearance at the end of the 19th century and since then have been a firm favourite up and down the country. The dish is simplicity itself: fish (usually cod, haddock or plaice) is dipped in a batter made from flour, eggs and water and then deep fried in hot fat. Chips are made from thick batons of potato and deep fried.

Fish and chips are served over the counter wrapped in paper, and traditionalists prefer to eat them straight out of the paper because they taste better that way!

The best-known British dish eaten at home has been roast beef, traditionally eaten on Sunday. The dish used to be so popular in England that the French still refer to the British as 'Les rosbifs'! Roast beef is served with roast potatoes, vegetables and gravy ­ (a sauce made from meat juices and stock, thickened with flour). Yorkshire pudding - batter baked in hot fat in the oven - is a favourite accompaniment to roast beef.

What are the most common superstitions in Britain?

There are many superstitions in Britain, but one of the most widely-held is that it is unlucky to walk under a ladder ­even if it means stepping off the pavement into a busy street!

If you must pass under a ladder you can avoid bad luck by crossing your fingers and keeping them crossed until you've seen a dog. Alternatively, you must lick your finger and make a cross on the toe of your shoe, and not look again at the shoe until the mark has dried.

Another common superstition is that it is unlucky to open an umbrella in the house - it will either bring misfortune to the person that opened it or to the household. Anyone opening an umbrella in fine weather is unpopular, as it inevitably brings rain!

The number 13 is said to be unlucky for some, and when the 13th day of the month falls on a Friday, anyone wishing to avoid an inauspicious event had better stay indoors.

The worst misfortune that can befall you is incurred by breaking a mirror, as it brings seven years of bad luck! The superstition is supposed to have originated in ancient times, when mirrors were considered to be tools of the gods.

Black cats are generally considered lucky in Britain, even though they are associated with witchcraft - a witch's animal-familiar is usually a black cat. It is especially lucky if a black cat crosses your path - although in America the exact opposite belief prevails.

Finally, a commonly-held superstition is that of touching wood for luck. This measure is most often taken if you think you have said something that is tempting fate, such as 'my car has never broken down - touch wood!’

How do the British spend their leisure time?

Britain's most common leisure activities are home-based or social. Watching television and videos, and listening to the radio are by far the most popular leisure pastimes, with an average of 20 hours a week devoted to these. Britain's regular weekly dramas or 'soap operas' such as 'EastEnders' and 'Coronation Street' have more viewers than any other programme.

Listening to music is also a popular pastime, with nearly 140 million compact discs (CDs) bought in 1995. Pop and rock albums are the most common type of music bought, and pop is by far the most popular form of musical expression in Britain.

The most common free-time activity outside the home amongst adults is a visit to the pub. Other popular leisure activities include visits to the theatre or cinema. There are over 1,500 cinemas in Britain, and in 1995 nearly one in five adults visited the cinema two or three times. Britain also has about 300 theatres, of which about 100 are in London. Britain's most famous theatre company, The Royal Shakespeare Company, performs in Stratford-upon-Avon, Shakespeare's birthplace, and in London.

Of all sporting activities, walking is by far the most popular for men and women of all ages. Whilst men tend to dominate golf and cue sports such as snooker and billiards, women generally prefer swimming, keep-fit classes and yoga.

How are the police organised?

There are 52 police forces in Britain, mainly organised on a local basis. The Metropolitan Police Force and the City of London force are responsible for policing London.

Each force in England and Wales is responsible to a police authority consisting of local councillors, magistrates and independent members. Since April 1996 the police authority in Scotland comprises four joint police boards made up of local councillors. The police force in Northern Ireland, the Royal Ulster Constabulary, is responsible to an independent police authority appointed by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland. For historical reasons, the Home Secretary is responsible for London's Metropolitan Police Force, advised by the Metropolitan Police Committee. For the City of London Police the authority is a committee of the Corporation of London.

Provincial forces are headed by a chief constable, deputy chief constable and assistant chief constable. The top Metropolitan Police ranks are the commissioner, deputy commissioner, assistant commissioner, deputy assistant commissioner and commander. Thereafter all ranks are the same in the forces - chief superintendent, superintendent, chief inspector, inspector, sergeant and constable.

Police community liaison consultative groups operate in every police authority; they consist of representatives from the police, local councillors and community groups. Most forces use customer surveys to provide information on public attitudes. These are used to shape the standards of service being provided.

The heart of policing is the work done by police constables, who are in constant contact with the public. They patrol the streets on foot or in cars, give advice and deal with disturbances. Local crime prevention panels ­each one assisted by the police - identify crime problems and try to tackle them through publicity. The police are closely involved in setting up 'neighbourhood watch' schemes, advising residents on home security and encouraging residents to keep an eye on properties in their area and pass on information to the police about suspicious people or vehicles.

There are about 150,000 full-time police officers in Britain, of whom around 12 per cent are women.

When can the police carry guns?

Usually uniformed police officers carry a truncheon or baton to protect themselves against violence. In England, Scotland and Wales firearms may be issued only to specially trained police officers, known as Authorised Firearms Officers, and then only on the authority of a senior officer.

Authority is given when an officer is likely to face an armed criminal or when an officer is deployed to protect a person who may be at risk of attack. Officers may fire weapons only as a last resort if they believe that their or other lives are in danger.

Each Authorised Firearms Officer is personally responsible for the decision to fire, and may be required to justify this action before the courts.

Most forces in England and Wales operate a system of armed response vehicles - patrol cars which carry weapons in a locked box - to provide a speedy initial response to a firearms incident.

Because of terrorist campaigns in Northern Ireland, members of the Royal Ulster Constabulary carry firearms for personal protection.

What is the oldest university in Britain?

The University of Oxford was the first university to be established in Britain. Dating from the 12th century, it is organised as a federation of colleges which are governed by their own teaching staff known as 'fellows'. The oldest college, University College, was founded in 1249. Other notable colleges include All Souls (founded in 1438), Christ church (founded in 1546 by Cardinal Wolsey), the college chapel of which is also Oxford Cathedral, and Lady Margaret Hall (founded in 1878), which was the first.

Today Oxford University is made up of 35 separate colleges, of which two are for women students only, and the rest take both men and women.

In 1208, scholars running away from riots in Oxford set up the first academic community in Cambridge. The University is also organised as a federation of colleges; the oldest, Peterhouse, dates from 1284. The largest college, Trinity, was founded by King Henry VIII in 1546.

Scotland also boasts a number of long-established universities. By the end of the Middle Ages Scotland had four universities at Edinburgh (founded 1583), Glasgow (founded 1450), Aberdeen (founded 1494) and St Andrew's (founded 1411) compared to England's two!

The University of Wales was founded in 1893. It consists of six colleges, the oldest one being St David's University College in Lampeter, founded in 1822.

Queen's University, Belfast was founded in 1845 as Queen's College, Belfast, part of the Queen's University of Ireland which had other colleges at Cork and Galway. It received its charter as a separate university in 1908.

What are Britain's national costumes?

England

Although England is a country rich in folklore and traditions, it has no definitive 'national' costume. The most well-known folk costumes are those of the Morris dancers. They can be seen in many country villages during the summer months performing folk dances that once held ritualistic and magical meanings associated with the awakening of the earth.

The costume varies from team to team, but basically consists of white trousers, a white shirt, a pad of bells worn around the calf of the leg, and a hat made of felt or straw, decorated with ribbons and flowers. The bells and ribbons are said to banish harm and bring fertility. Morris dancing was originally an all-male tradition, but now some teams feature women dancers too.

Scotland

Perhaps the most famous national costume in Britain is the Scottish kilt with its distinctive tartan pattern. The kilt is a length of woollen cloth, pleated except for sections at each end. The kilt is worn around the waist, with the pleats at the back and the ends crossed over at the front and secured with a pin.

Each Scottish Clan or family has its own distinctive tartan pattern, made up of different colours, and an official register of tartans is maintained by the Scottish Tartans Society in Perthshire.

The kilt forms part of the traditional Highland dress, worn by Scottish clansmen and Scottish regiments. In addition to the kilt, a plaid or tartan cloak is worn over one shoulder, and a goatskin pouch or sporran is worn at the front of the kilt. Sometimes tartan trousers or trews are worn instead of a kilt. Women do not have their own distinctive national dress in Scotland, although tartan fabrics are widely used in clothing, and the kilt is also worn.

Wales

The national costume of Wales is based on the peasant costume of the 18th and 19th centuries. Because Wales was isolated geographically from the rest of Britain, many of the individual traits of costume and materials were retained in Welsh dress long after they had died out elsewhere.

Unlike Scotland, the distinctive folk costume of Wales was worn by the women, consisting of a long gown (bedgown) or skirt, worn with a petticoat (pais - the favoured colour was scarlet) and topped with a shawl folded diagonally to form a triangle and draped around the shoulders, with one corner hanging down and two others pinned in front. Aprons were universally worn, sometimes simple, sometimes decorated with colourful embroidery.

The most distinctive part of the costume was the tall black 'Welsh hat' or 'beaver hat', thought to have originated in France at the end of the 18th century. The hats had a tall crown, cylindrical or conical in shape with a wide brim, and were usually trimmed with a band of silk or crepe.

Northern Ireland

Early Irish dress, based on Gaelic and Norse costumes, consisted of check trews for men, worn with a fringed cloak or mantle, or a short tunic for both men and women, worn with a fringed cloak. This style of dressing was prohibited in the 16th century under sumptuary laws, passed to suppress the distinctive Irish dress and so overcome Irish reluctance to become part of England. In particular, the wearing of the fringed cloak was forbidden; as was the wearing of trews or any saffron-coloured garment (saffron yellow was an important feature of Irish costume).

Although a strong tradition of wearing folk costume does not survive in Northern Ireland today, folk music and folk dancing are very important.

What is haggis?

Haggis is Scotland’s best-known regional dish, a rich, spicy concoction made from lamb’s offal (lungs, liver and heart) mixed with suet, onions, herbs and spices, all packed into a skin made of plastic, or, traditionally, a sheep’s stomach.

Traditionally served on Burn’s Night, the haggis is often accompanied by mashed potatoes and mashed swede or turnips. Although the haggis neither sounds nor looks appetising most people brave enough to try it agree that it is extremely tasty!

Is it true that a lot of British dishes are named after places?

The rich variety of British regional cooking is reflected in the names of our favourite dishes. Many regions have their own particular speciality of sweet or savoury fare, or are famed for their local produce.

Cheeses are produced in many regions, although Cheddar cheese, a strong-flavoured, salty cheese is the most popular variety. It originates from a village in Somerset in western England is also famous for its gorge. Other types of cheeses include Cheshire, Lancashire, Stilton and Wensleydale.

Cornwall in south-west England is famous for its Cornish Pasties - a pastry case filled with meat, potatoes and vegetables, which was the traditional midday meal of workers in the region.

The town of Bakewell in Derbyshire has a rich pastry tart named after it. The Bakewell pudding or Bakewell tart was said to have been invented by accident, when a cook forgot to put jam over the custard filling of a pudding - instead she spread it straight onto the pastry case and poured the custard on top. Thus a new dish was born!

Welsh cakes, a kind of sweet cake cooked on a griddle, were originally served to hungry travellers when they arrived at an inn for the night while they waited for their supper to be cooked.

Many other dishes are named after places - everything from Lancashire hotpot (a casserole of meat and vegetables topped with sliced potatoes) and Scottish shortbread (a sweet, buttery biscuit) to Welsh rarebit (nothing to do with rabbit, but melted cheese on toast!), baked Ulster ham, and Bath buns (a sweet bun containing spices and dried fruit, originally made in Bath, western England). Indeed, dedicated gourmets could happily munch their way from one county to another!

Why is the Tower of London so popular with tourists?

The Tower of London is one of the most popular and imposing of London's historical sites. It comprises not one, but 20 towers, the oldest of which, the White Tower, dates back to the 11th century and the time of William the Conqueror. It is the Tower's evil reputation as a prison that ensures it remains a much visited tourist spot today, together with the rich and varied history that surrounds it.

Many stories associated with British history come from the Tower. In 1483 King Edward IV's two sons were murdered in the so-called Bloody Tower, and over two centuries later the skeletons of two little boys were found buried beneath steps in the White Tower, assumed to be the bodies of the princes.

Traitor's Gate, set in the southern wall of the Tower, has steps leading down to the River Thames. Countless prisoners, including the future Queen Elizabeth I of England, were brought to the Tower by barge, and ascended the steps before being imprisoned - for many it was their last moment of freedom before their death. Fortunately, Elizabeth was released from the Tower and became Queen.

Elizabeth I's father, Henry VIII, made the Tower the dread destination of his enemies. Sir Thomas More was beheaded there in 1535 and the King's second wife, Anne Boleyn, was brought to trial there in 1536 and beheaded on Tower Green. Six years later her cousin, Catherine Howard, Henry VIII's fifth wife, suffered the same fate.

The Tower is famous as home of the Crown Jewels. Today they can be viewed in their new jewel house from a moving pavement, designed to cope with the huge numbers of tourists. They include the Crown of Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother which contains the celebrated Indian diamond, the Koh-I-Noor (mountain of light), and St Edward's Crown which is used for the actual crowning of the Sovereign and weighs over two kilograms.

Everyone has heard of the Yeoman Warders of the Tower or 'Beefeaters', whose striking Tudor uniform has changed little since 1485. The uniform consists of a knee-length scarlet tunic, scarlet knee-breeches and stockings, and a round brimmed hat called a Tudor bonnet. Their distinctive white neck ruff was introduced by Queen Elizabeth I.

No visit to the Tower would be complete without seeing the ravens; huge black birds who are an official part of the Tower community. Legend states that if the ravens were to leave the Tower the Crown will fall and Britain with it. Under the special care of the Raven Master, the ravens are fed a daily diet of raw meat paid for out of a special fund set aside by Parliament. There is no danger of them flying away, as their wings are clipped!

At what age do children go to school in Britain?

Children in Britain must attend school from the age of 5 (4 in Northern Ireland) until they are 16. Before the start of formal schooling, many children attend nursery schools or nursery classes attached to primary schools. In addition, some parents elect to send their children to private (fee-paying) nursery schools or kindergartens. In England and Wales, many primary schools also operate an early admission policy where they admit children under 5 into what are called reception classes.

Children first attend the infants' school or department. At 7 they move to the junior school and the usual age for transfer from junior to secondary school is 11 (12 in Scotland). In some areas, however, 'first' schools take pupils aged 5 to 8, 9 or 10, and pupils within the 8 to 14 age range go to 'middle' schools.

What are the different types of secondary school?

Over 85 per cent of secondary school pupils go to comprehensive schools. These take children of all abilities, and provide a wide range of secondary education for all or most of the children in a district from the age of 11 to 16 or 16.

There are also other types of secondary school. Grammar schools offer a mainly academic education for the 11 to 18-year age group. Children enter grammar schools on the basis of their abilities, first sitting the ‘11’ plus or entrance examination. Grammar schools cater for four per cent of children in secondary education.

A small minority of children attend secondary modern schools (around four per cent). These schools provide a more general and technical education for children aged 11-16.

City Technology Colleges (CTCs) aim to give boys and girls a broad secondary education with a strong technological and business slant. They are non-fee-paying independent schools, set up by the Government with the help of business sponsors who finance a large proportion of the initial capital costs and develop links with the schools. There are now 15 such colleges, in operation in England and Wales.

Specialist schools, which only operate in England, give pupils a broad secondary education with a strong emphasis on technology, languages, arts or sports. There are over 250 specialist schools. They charge no fees and any secondary school can apply for specialist school status.

Why are ‘public’ schools so called?

The independent school sector is separate from the state educational system, and caters for some seven per cent of all schoolchildren in England and four per cent in Scotland.

Parents of pupils attending independent schools pay for their education, and in some cases fees can amount to several thousand pounds a year. Some pupils gain scholarships and their expenses are covered by the schools.

About 250 of the larger independent schools are known for historical reasons as public schools. Eton, which was founded in 1440, is said to have been the first grammar school to be called a ‘public school’ because scholars could come to it from any part of England and not, as was generally the case, just from the immediate neighbourhood.

Originally, many public schools stressed a classical education, character training and sports, but the curriculum is now closely allied to state education.

In Northern Ireland there are a few independent fee paying schools catering for a very small proportion of the school population; they do not receive any support from public funds.

Schools in Scotland supported by public funds are also called 'public schools' but they are not fee-paying, independent schools.

Why does the Queen have two birthdays?

The Queen was actually born on 21 April, but it has long been customary to celebrate the Sovereign's birthday on a day during the summer. Since 1805 the Sovereign's 'official' birthday has been marked by the Trooping the Colour ceremony, normally held on the second Saturday in June.

This is a ceremony which originated when it was essential for soldiers to recognise the flag or 'Colour' of their regiment so that they could follow it into battle. Each year one of the five regiments of the foot guards (Grenadiers, Cold stream Guards, Scots, Irish and Welsh Guards) take turns to display their Colour in the ceremony.

The ceremony begins with the Queen leaving Buckingham Palace escorted by the Household Cavalry. She rides down The Mall to Horse Guards Parade and inspects the 500 guardsmen.

The Colour is trooped by being carried along the ranks of guardsmen, and the Colour party then leads the guards on a march past the Queen, accompanied by the massed bands of the foot guards.

No particular annual ceremony is held on the Queen's true birthday, although the Union Flag is flown on public buildings and the national anthem is sung.

Why the heir to the throne is called the Prince of Wales?

The Heir Apparent has, since the institution of the title by King Edward I in 1301, usually been 'created' Prince of Wales. Edward I led the conquest of independent Wales between 1277 and 1283. He subsequently proclaimed his son, Edward, born at Caernarfon in Wales in 1284, the Prince of Wales. There is no succession to the title, which is only renewed at the Sovereign's pleasure. The present Prince of Wales is the 21st in line counting several who were never formally invested!

Prince Charles was created Prince of Wales at Caernarfon Castle on July 1st 1969.

How should one address someone with a title?

Information on the protocol of addressing holders of honours and titles can be found in 'Whitaker's Almanac' (published annually) and 'Debrett's Correct Form' (Webb and Bower, Exeter).

Some examples are:

The Queen is addressed as “Your Majesty” and subsequently “Ma’am”

A Royal Prince is addressed as “Your Royal Highness” and subsequently “Sir”.

A Royal Princess is addressed as “Your Royal Highness" and subsequently “Ma’am”.

A Knight is addressed as “Sir” and the wife of a Knight as “Lady”.

An Archbishop is addressed as “Your Grace”and a Bishop is addressed as “My Lord”.

An Ambassador is addressed as “Your Excellency”. In writing they should be addressed as “Dear Ambassador” or “Dear High Commissioner” if a representative of a Commonwealth country, or very formally as “Your Excellency”.

What powers does the Queen have?

The Crown, which represents both the Sovereign (the person on whom the Crown is constitutionally conferred) and the Government, is the symbol of supreme executive power. The Crown is vested in the Queen, but in general its functions are exercised by Ministers responsible to Parliament and thus Britain is governed by Her Majesty's Government in the name of the Queen. However, the Queen's involvement is still required in many important acts of government.

Parliament

The Queen summons, prorogues (discontinues until the next session without dissolving) and dissolves Parliament. She normally opens the new session of Parliament with a speech from the throne which is written for her by the Government and outlines her Government's programme. Before a Bill becomes law the Queen must give it her Royal Assent, which is announced to both Houses of Parliament.

Justice

The Queen can, on ministerial advice, pardon or show mercy to those convicted of crimes. In law the Queen as a private person can do no wrong: she is immune from civil or criminal proceedings and cannot be sued in courts of law. This immunity is not shared by other members of the royal family.

Honours and appointments

The Queen has the power to confer peerages, knighthoods and other honours. She normally does this on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, although a few honours are conferred by the Sovereign personally. The Queen makes appointments to many important state offices, on the advice of the Prime Minister or the relevant Cabinet Minister.

Foreign policy

Foreign diplomatic representatives in London are accredited to the Queen, and she has the power to conclude treaties, to declare war' and to make peace, to recognise foreign states and governments and to annex and cede territory.

Privy Council

The Queen presides over meetings of the Privy Council. At these, among other things, Orders in Council made under the Royal Prerogative or under statute are approved. The Royal Prerogative mainly comprises executive government ­powers controlled by constitutional conventions (rules which are not part of the law, but which are regarded as indispensable to the machinery of government).

In nearly all cases acts involving the Royal Prerogative are performed by Ministers who are responsible to Parliament and can be questioned about policies. Parliament has the power to abolish or restrict a prerogative right.

In addition to being informed and consulted about all aspects of national life, the Queen is free to put forward her own views, in private, for the consideration of her Ministers.

What does the Union Jack stand for and how should it be flown?

The flag of Britain, commonly known as the Union Jack (which derives from the use of the Union Flag on the jack-staff of naval vessels), embodies the emblems of three countries under one Sovereign. The emblems that appear on the Union Flag are the crosses of three patron saints:

the red cross of St. George, for England, on a white ground;

the white diagonal cross, or saltire, of St. Andrew, for Scotland, on a blue ground;

the red diagonal cross of St. Patrick, for Ireland, on a white ground.

The final version of the Union Flag appeared in 1801, following the union of Great Britain with Ireland, with the inclusion of the cross of St Patrick. The cross remains in the flag although now only Northern Ireland is part of the United Kingdom.

­Wales is not represented in the Union Flag because, when the first version of the flag appeared, Wales was already united with England. The national flag of Wales, a red dragon on a field of white and green, dates from the 15th century and is widely used throughout the Principality.

The Union Flag should be flown with the broader diagonal band of white uppermost in the hoist (near the pole) and the narrower diagonal band of white uppermost in the fly (furthest from the pole).

Why doesn’t Britain have a written constitution?

The British constitution has evolved over many centuries. Unlike the constitutions of America, France and many Commonwealth countries, the British constitution has not been assembled at any time into a single, consolidated document. Instead it is made up of common law, statute law and convention.

Of all the democratic countries in the world, only Israel is comparable to Britain in having no single document codifying the way its political institutions function and setting out the rights and duties of its citizens. Britain does, however, have certain important constitutional documents, including the Magna Carta (1215) which protects the rights of the community against the Crown; the Bill of Rights (1689) which extended the powers of Parliament, making it impracticable for the Sovereign to ignore the wishes of the Government; and the Reform Act (1832), which reformed the system of parliamentary representation.

Common law has never been precisely defined – it is deduced from custom or legal precedents and interpreted in court cases by judges. Conventions are rules and practices which are not legally enforceable, but which are regarded as indispensable to the working of government. Many conventions are derived from the historical events through which the British system of government has evolved. One convention is that Ministers are responsible and can be held to account for what happens in their Departments. The constitution can be altered by Act of Parliament, or by general agreement to alter a convention.

The flexibility of the British constitution helps to explain why it has developed so fully over the years. However, since Britain joined the European Community in 1973, the rulings of the European Court of Justice have increasingly determined and codified sections of British law in those areas covered by the various treaties to which Britain is a party. In the process British constitutional and legal arrangements are beginning to resemble those of Europe.

What was the Magna Carta?

The Magna Carta (Latin for ‘Great Charter’) is Britain’s best known constitutional document. In 1215 feudal barons forced the ‘tyrannical’ King John (1199-1216) to agree to a series of concessions embodied in a charter which became known as the Magna Carta. Sixty-one clauses set out a clear expression of the rights of the community against the Crown. The contents deal with the ‘free’ Church; feudal law; towns, trade and merchants; the reform of the law and justice; the behaviour of royal officials; and royal forests.

The King was forced to fix his seal to the Magna Carta in a meadow next to the River Thames at Runnymede between Windsor and Staines. It is said that he behaved pleasantly to the nobles at the time, but as soon as he returned to his own chamber he threw himself on the floor in a mad rage.

Since that day the Magna Carta has become part of English Law and established the important principle that the King is not above the law.

Original copies of the charter exist in Salisbury Cathedral, Lincoln Castle and the British Museum in London.

Why are Ambassadors sent to the Court of St. James’s?

Ambassadors are sent to the Court of St. James’s because they are appointed ambassadors to the country of the United Kingdom and the Head of State is the Queen. For historical reasons the Royal Court is known as the Court of St. James; St. James’s Palace was the official residence of the Monarch until Queen Victoria moved to Buckingham Palace.

How does Britain elect its government?

Parliament, the law-making body of the British people, consists of three elements: the Monarchy, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. They meet together only on occasions of ceremonial significance, such as the state opening of Parliament, although the agreement of all three is normally required for legislation.

The House of Commons consists of 659 elected members called Members of Parliament or MPs. Its main purpose is to make laws by passing Acts of Parliament, as well as to discuss current political issues. Elections to the House of Commons are an important part of Britain's democratic system.

The House of Lords consists of around 1,270 non-elected members (hereditary peers and peeresses, life peers and peeresses and two archbishops and 24 senior bishops of the Church of England). Its main legislative function is to examine and revise bills from the Commons. It also acts in a legal capacity as the final court of appeal. The Lords cannot normally prevent proposed legislation from becoming law if the Commons insists on it.

General elections are held after Parliament has been' dissolved', either by a royal proclamation or because the maximum term between elections - five years - has expired. The decision on when to hold a general election is made by the Prime Minister.

For electoral purposes Britain is divided into constituencies, each of which returns one MP to the House of Commons. The British electoral system is based on the relative majority method - sometimes called the 'first past the post' principle - which means the candidate with more votes than any other is elected.

All British citizens together with citizens of other Commonwealth countries and citizens of the Irish Republic resident in Britain may vote, provided they are aged 18 years or over and not legally barred from voting. People not entitled to vote include those serving prison sentences, peers and peeresses who are members of the House of Lords, and those kept in hospital under mental health legislation.

Voting is by secret ballot. The elector selects just one candidate on the ballot paper and marks an 'X' by the candidate's name. Voting in elections is voluntary. On average about 75 per cent of the electorate votes.

Any person aged 21 or over who is a British citizen or citizen of another Commonwealth country or the Irish Republic may stand for election to Parliament, provided they are not disqualified. People disqualified include those who are bankrupt, those sentenced to more than one year's imprisonment, members of the clergy, members of the House of Lords, and a range of public servants and officials. Approved candidates are usually selected by their political party organisations in the constituency which they represent, although candidates do not have to have party backing.

The leader of the political party which wins most seats (although not necessarily most votes) at a general election, or who has the support of a majority of members in the House of Commons, is by convention invited by the Sovereign to form the new government.

Дата добавления: 2015-11-14