The development of styles in Europe from the 1 страница

9^TH TILL 20^TH CENTURIES

The Western World-Middle Ages and Renaissance. The barbarians who overran Europe in the Middle Ages wore long flowing locks and beards. From the 9th century-, nobles on the Continent wore short hair (to the neck) and were clean shaven. After the Norman Conquest of the still long haired English, Continental fashion changed, requiring beards and long curled hair, filled out with false hair. In the 13th and 14th centuries the hair was neatly rolled at the neck in page boy style. The ear-revealing style of the early 15th century was superseded longer page-boy style.

The influence of the church, always concerned for modesty, encouraged married noblewomen to veil their long plaits entwined with ribbons and false hair. In the 13th and 14th centuries they coiled their plaits over the ears or bundled them into gold or silver cauls (nets) or concealed hair, neck, and chin with a linen wimple, all these styles finished off by a veil or kerchief. In the 15th century, fashionable ladies of northern Europe plucked their hairline to make their foreheads seem higher and scraped their hair back under an elaborate homed, pointed or wired headdress. In the warmer climate of Italy, women displayed their hair in plaits and under low, jewelled turbans, bandeaus or caps. Both men and women strove to achieve blond hair by either using a bleach or saffron or onion skin dye, or, in the case of Italian women, by sitting for hours in a crownless hat in the sun.

In the 16th century, after Francis I of France accidentally burned his hair with a torch, men wore short hair and grew short beards and moustaches. Women's hair was tucked under lappeted hoods (caps in Italy), which gradually became smaller, revealing more hair. The front hair was frizzed around the face and brushed over metal hoops or rolls. The back hair was coiled up in a net out of the way of the high collar. Blond or, in England, red hair, like Queen Elizabeth', was popular, and false hair and wigs were used. Hair was dusted with powder or flour for blonds, violet for brunettes and white for the gray and held in place by gum or rotten oak paste. Lead combs were believed to restore colour to the hair. Jewels, feathers and ornamental hairpins provided decoration.

17th and 18th Centuries. In the first half of the 17th century fashionable men wore long curled hair, often oiled, falling over wide, white collars. Frequently they displayed a longer lock tied with a bow, a neat moustache and a small, pointed beard, the Vandyke. Later in the 17th century men shaved their faces and their beads-, covering their heads with caps at home or long, full-bottomed, curled wigs in public.

Women's hair in the first part of the 17th century was flat on top with fringe on the forehead; wide crimped puffs, then bunched long curls over wire frames at the sides; and a coil high in back decorated with rosettes or a fine linen or lace cap. In the 18th century, men continued to wear wigs but generally smaller and lighter ones, powdered white. Some wigs were tied back into a queue encased in a black silk bag, some were braided and some were held by a black bow. The law, the army and the navy each had its own style of wig. Some men wore their own hair and a queue. In the early part of the 18th century, women had trim little crimped or curled heads, powdered and decorated with garlands or bows. Widows, middle-class women, and women at home wore tiny caps. By the 1770's coiffures were built over horsehair pads or wire cages, stuck with pomatum and powdered with starch mounted three feet in the air. Some had springs to adjust the height. They were extravagantly adorned with feathers, ribbons, jewels and even ships, gardens and menageries. Such constructions required several hours work every one to three weeks. In the 1780's a reaction against formality and extravagance led to the hérisson (hedgehog) style for men and women, loose, bushy mass of curls.

By this time hairdressers formed a distinct profession. The best were men, many of them trained as wigmakers. Especially notable was Legros de Rumigny, a former baker, who became court hairdresser in France, published the Art de la coiffure des dames (1765), and opened an Academic de Coiffure in 1769.

19th Century.The French Revolution and Empire and the accompanying taste for simplicity and the antique had a great effect on hairstyles. Both men and women cut their hair very short, like the Roman emperors, or women twisted their hair into Greek knots, with short curls framing the face, or later into smooth plaits around the head. They also wore coloured wigs.

Gradually as men became more concerned with commerce, they spent less time on their hair. In the 19th century they kept it relatively short, sometimes curled and dressed with macassar oil. Most men wore some variety of moustache, sideburns, or beard.

By the 1830's women were dressing their hair standing rolls or loops on the crown, held by ribbons and combs, and short curls clustered at the temples. Beginning in the 1840's heads were sleek and demure, the hair oiled and smoothed down over the temples with long sausage curls at the side later with a heavy chignon of curls or plaits in back. In the 1880's the front hair formed a crimped fringe. In the 1890's the pompadour of the Gibson Girl was combed over a pad making a high wide frame for the face and swept up behind. Curls, crimping, and the natural-looking marcel wave were achieved by the use of heated irons, including the waving iron invented by the French hairdresser Marcel Grateau in the 1870's.

20th Century. As a result of World War I, women everywhere cut or "bobbed" their hair as a symbol of their political and social emancipation. There followed a succession of short, head-clinging hair styles inspired by film stars. Short hair greatly increased the popularity of the permanent wave, invented by the German Charles Nessler about 1905. The early permanents required heat, took 12 hours, and sometimes gave a frizzy effect. Later the cold wave, with chemicals, simplified the process.

In the 1950's the invention of rollers for waving made possible the very short, layered Italian cut as young, active, informal women discarded hats, hair styles, bouffant styles and the smooth, geometric cuts became more important. In the 1960's the availability of natural-looking hair pieces in the form of full wigs, half wigs, or long falls, at all prices, enabled almost every woman to own one or more to suit her taste and mood. Men's hair in the 20th century was generally simple and short and most men were clean shaven. In the 1960's the nonconformist young started a trend toward longer hair and side hums or beards to suit their unconventional clothes. Some went to wild-looking extremes; others chose moderate, well-groomed styles to the nape of the neck, trimmed to flatter the shape of the head. Such styles were created or copied in the newly established men's hairdressing salons that offered scissor or razor cuts, lotions, drying in nets, hairspray, and colouring.

Professional Requirements. In the 20th century a hairdresser must fulfil professional requirements. In the United States he must attend a cosmetology school, generally for 1.000 hours of training, in order to receive a state license to practice. In Europe he must serve an apprenticeship of from one to five years before registering to practice.

COSMETICS

Cosmetics have been used since Egyptian times. They were also commonplace in Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. The idea of using cosmetics to enhance the appearance has not changed since these times. Using cosmetics is still designed to capture the appearance of youth in perfect health. Colourful cosmetics hide the appearance of pale cheeks, pale lips and fingernails and dull hair.

Many of the cosmetics used contained dangerous ingredients. There was often more importance put on the application of cosmetics rather than washing and cleaning the skin. From the 1400s whitening the face was one of the most common cosmetic practices. This was still popular in the 1800s. A mixture composed of carbonate, hydroxide and lead oxide was commonly used. This could lead to muscle paralysis or death when used repeatedly. It was replaced by zinc oxide in the 1800s.

Another way to have whiter skin was to bleed yourself. This was done by using the widespread medical practice of using leeches or occasionally a more extreme method called cupping.

In the 1920s having tanned skin became popular when Coco Chanel was seen with a tan on the Duke of Westminster's yacht. The idea of having brown skin became more attractive and products were produced that could create this colour artificially. Staining of the fingernails has been used in cosmetics for a long time. The first examples date from 3000BC in China. They used gum Arabic, egg whites, gelatine and beeswax to create the varnish. The royal family in China used gold and silver nail colours. In the first century AD black and red were also used. The lower ranks were only allowed to wear pale colours. In Egypt the colour of nail varnish used also represented social class. Henna was used to dye the nails. Modern nail varnish comes in a variety of colours and is actually a variation of car paint.

Hair dye and dressing hair is not new. The Romans, Ancient Egyptians and Greeks were all involved in elaborate forms of hairdressing and dyeing. Most of the early hair dyes, such as henna, indigo, sage and camomile, could only darken the hair. Roman women would show off their dark shiny tresses that had been dyed with a mixture of boiled walnuts and leeks. They also used blond dyes made from goat's fat and ashes. In the Renaissance, blond was also popular as it was considered angelic.

1t was in 1907 that the first synthetic dye was created by French chemist Eugene Schueller. 1t was originally called Aureole, but later it was renamed L'Oreal.

APPENDIX 3

GLOSSARY

A

academic art – n. style of painting and sculpture produced under the influence of European academies or universities

accessory –n. 1) additional or extra thing; 2) small attachment, fitting or subsidiary item of dress (e.g. shoes, gloves)

acetate – n. 1) salt or ester of acetic acid, especially the cellulose ester; 2) fabric made of this

achieve – v. 1) bring to a successful conclusion; accomplish; attain; 2) gain as by hard work or effort

acrylic – n. acrylic fibre or fabric. – adj. of synthetic material made from acrylic acid

actor –n. person who acts in a play, film, broadcast, etc.

ad – n. short for advertisement

Adobe After Effects – n. (plural) digital motion graphics and compositing software published by Adobe Systems

adopt – v. 1) choose and follow (a plan, technique, etc.); 2) take over (an idea, etc.) as if it were one’s own

adorn – v. add beauty to, decorate

advanced – adj. 1) being ahead in development, knowledge, progress, etc.; 2) ahead of the times

advent – n. arrival or coming, especially one which is awaited

advertise –v. 1) promote (goods or services) publicly to increase sales; 2) make generally known

advertisement –n. 1) public announcement, especially of goods or services for sale or wanted vacancies, etc.; 2) advertising

advertising – n. 1) promotion of goods or services for sale through impersonal media, such as radio or television; 2) business that specializes in creating such publicity

advertising photography – n. art of taking and processing photographs for the purpose of illustrating and usually selling a service or product

aesthetics – n. 1) branch of philosophy that deals with the nature and expression of beauty, as in the fine arts; 2) study of the rules and principles of art

air – v. 1) expose or be exposed to the air so as to cool or freshen; ventilate; 2) expose or be exposed to warm or heated air so as to dry

amateur – n. 1) person who engages in an art, science, study, etc. as a pastime rather than a profession; 2) one lacking the skill of a professional as in an art. – adj. 1) of or performed by an amateur; 2) made up of amateurs; 3) not professional; unskillful

animation –n. technique of producing a moving picture from a sequence of drawings or puppet poses, etc.

appeal – n. 1) power to attract, please, stimulate or interest. – v. attract, please, stimulate or interest

appearance – n. 1) act or an instance of appearing, as to the eye, before the public, etc.; 2) outward or visible aspect of a person or thing

applied art – n.refers to the application of design and aesthetics to objects of function and everyday use

appropriate – adj. right or suitable; fitting

archetype – n. 1) perfect or typical specimen; 2) original model or pattern; prototype; 3) constantly recurring symbol or motif in literature, painting, etc.

architect – n. one who designs and supervises the construction of buildings or other large structures

architecture – n. 1) art and science of designing and erecting buildings; 2) buildings and other large structures; 3) style and method of design and construction; 4) overall design or structure of a computer system, including the hardware and the software required to run it, especially the internal structure of the microprocessor

archival storage – n. method of retaining information outside of the internal memory of a computer

arrange – v. put into a proper, systematic or decorative order

art movement – n. tendency or style in art with a specific common philosophy or goal followed by a group of artists during a restricted period of time

artificial fiber (synthetic fibre) – n. filament made from materials such as glass, rayon or nylon

artist – n. 1) person who practises or is skilled in an art, especially painting, drawing or sculpture; 2) person who displays in his work qualities required in art, such as sensibility and imagination; 3) person whose profession requires artistic expertise, especially a designer

attachment – n. 1) something such as a tie, band or fastener that attaches one thing to another; 2) supplementary part; an accessory

audience – n. spectators or listeners assembled at a performance or attracted by a radio or television program

audio file – n. computer file that contains digitized audio

authentic – adj. of undisputed origin or authorship; genuine

authoring – n. speciality application-dependent software allowing to develop interactive multimedia applications

availability – n. quality or state of being available

avant-garde – n. group active in the invention and application of new techniques in a given field, especially in the arts. – adj. of, relating to or being part of an innovative group, especially one in the arts

B

background – n. 1) ground or scenery located behind something; 2) general scene or surface against which designs, patterns or figures are represented or viewed; 3) part of a pictorial representation that appears to be in the distance and that provides relief for the principal objects in the foreground

ballad opera – n. opera consisting of popular tunes to which appropriate words have been set interspersed with spoken dialogue

bang – n. fringe or section of hair cut straight across the forehead. – v. cut (the hair) in such a style

Baroque – n. style of architecture and decorative art that flourished throughout Europe from the late 16th to the early 18th century characterized by extensive ornamentation

bead – n. small, often round piece of material such as glass, plastic or wood that is pierced for stringing or threading; 2) (plural) necklace made of such pieces

bed sheet (sheet) – n. large rectangular piece of cotton, linen, etc., generally one of a pair used as inner bedclothes

bedroom – n. room used primarily for sleeping

bespeak – v. engage, request or ask for in advance

black-and-white – n. photograph, picture, sketch, etc. in black, white and shades of grey rather than in colour

blazer – n. fairly lightweight jacket often striped or in the colours of a sports club, school, etc.

blended – adj. combined or mixed together

bloom – n. 1) flower of a plant; 2) condition of being in flower

bold – adj. clear and distinct to the eye; conspicuous

bolster – n. 1) long narrow pillow or cushion; 2) any pad or padded support

bouquet – n. bunch of flowers, especially professionally arranged

boutonniere (buttonhole) – n. flower or floral decoration worn by men

braid – n. 1) length of hair, fabric, etc. that has been braided; plait; 2) narrow ornamental tape of woven silk, wool, etc. – v. 1) interweave several strands of (hair, thread, etc.); plait; 2) dress or bind (the hair) with a ribbon, etc.; 3) decorate with an ornamental trim or border

brand-new – adj. absolutely new

breastplate – n. piece of armour covering the chest

brightness – n. degree or intensity of lightness in a colour

brush – n. 1) device consisting of bristles fastened into a handle used in scrubbing, polishing or painting; 2) act or an instance of brushing. – v. clean, polish, scrub, paint, etc. with a brush

buckle – n. 1) clasp for fastening two ends, as of straps or belt, in which a device attached to one of the ends is fitted or coupled to the other; 2 ) ornament that resembles this clasp such as a metal square on a shoe or hat. – v. fasten or be fastened with a buckle

bulky – adj. awkwardly large

business card – n. card bearing business information about a company or individual

C

cane – n. slender rod, usually wooden and often ornamental used for support when walking; walking stick

carpet – n. heavy fabric for covering floors

celebrity – n. 1) famous person; 2) renown; fame

centerpiece – n. object used as the centre of something, especially for decoration

chainmail (mail) – n. type of armour or jewelry that consists of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh

character – n. 1) person represented in a play, film, story, role; 2) outstanding person; 3) letter, numeral, etc. which is a unit of information and can be represented uniquely by a binary pattern

chemise – n. 1) woman’s unwaisted loose-fitting dress hanging straight from the shoulders; 2) loose shirtlike undergarment

closet – n. cabinet or enclosed recess for linens, household supplies or clothing

cloth – n. 1) fabric formed by weaving, felting or knitting wool, cotton, etc.; 2) piece of such fabric used for a particular purpose as for a dishcloth

clothe – v. 1) dress or attire (a person); 2) provide with clothing or covering

clothes – n. (plural) articles of dress

clothing – n. 1) garments collectively; 2) something that covers or clothes

coat – n. 1) outdoor garment with sleeves covering the body from the shoulder to waist, knee or foot; 2) any similar garment, especially one forming the top to a suit; 3) hair, wool or fur of an animal

coated paper – n. paper which has been coated by a compound to impart certain qualities to the paper including weight and surface gloss, smoothness or ink absorbency

collaboration – n. 1) act of working jointly; 2) something created by working jointly

colophon – n. 1) publisher’s emblem on a book; 2) inscription at the end of a book showing the title, printer, date, etc.

colour – n. 1) sensation produced on the eye by rays of light when resolved as by a prism into different wavelengths; 2) one or any mixture of the componentsinto which light can be separated as in a spectrum or rainbow sometimes including black and white; 3) colouring substance, especially paint; 4) use of all colours in photography, etc.; 5) one of the elements of design (art) with three properties: hue, intensity, value. – v. 1) apply colour to something, especially by painting, dyeing, etc.; 2) give a convincing or plausible appearance to something; 3) take on colour; blush

colour negative – n. film, plate or other photographic material containing an image in which the light areas of the object rendered appear dark and the dark areas appear light

colour scheme – n. planned combination or juxtaposition of colours as in interior decorating

colour wheel – n. radialdiagram of colours in which primary and secondary, and sometimes intermediate colours are displayed as an aid to colour identification, choosing and mixing

comb out – v. arrange the hair loosely by combing

comedy – n. 1) dramatic or other work of light and amusing character; 2) genre of drama represented by works of this type; 3) humour or comic style

comfortable – adj. 1) giving comfort or physical relief; 2) at ease

comforter – n. 1) (US) quilted bed covering; 2) (Brit) woollen scarf

comic opera – n. play largely set to music employing comic effects or situations

commercial photography – n.art of taking and processing photographs the primary focus of which is to sell products or services

communication -n. 1) act or instance of communicating; the imparting or exchange of information, ideas or feelings; 2) something communicated such as a message, letter or telephone call; 3) (often plural) study of ways in which human beings communicate, including speech, gesture, telecommunication systems, publishing and broadcasting media, etc.

communication design – n. design which is concerned with how media intermission such as printed, crafted, electronic media or presentations communicate with people

complement – n. one of two parts that make up a whole or complete each other. – v. add to, make complete or form a complement to

complementary colours – n. (plural) colours that are directly opposite each other on the colour wheel such as red and green, blue and orange, and violet and yellow

computer-aided design (CAD) – n.use of computer techniques in designing products, especially involving the use of computer graphics

conformity – n. 1) similarity in form or character; agreement; 2) action or behaviour in correspondence with socially accepted standards, conventions, rules or laws

Constructivism – n. movement in abstract art evolved in Russia after World War I. It explored the use of movement and machine-age materials in sculpture and had considerable influence on modern art and architecture

Contemporary art – n. art produced at this present point in time or art produced since World War II

content – n. 1) (often plural) everything that is inside a container; 2) (usually plural)chapters or divisions of a book; 3) meaning or significance of a poem, painting or other work of art as distinguished from its style or form

contrast – n. 1) juxtaposition of dissimilar elements as colour, tone or emotion in a work of art (principle of design (art)); 2) difference or degree of difference between things having similar or comparable natures. – v. 1) set together so as to reveal a contrast; 2) have or show a contrast

contribution – n. 1) act of contributing; 2) something contributed such as money or ideas; 3) article, story, etc. contributed to a newspaper or other publication

convenient – adj. 1) suitable for one’s purpose or needs; opportune; 2) easy to use; 3) close by or easily accessible; handy

corporate communication – n. communication issued by a corporate organization, body, institute to all its public(s)

corporate identity – n. way an organization is presented to or perceived by its members and the public

corporate image – n. representation which the company creates about itself with the help of advertising. It refers to how a corporation is perceived

corsage – n. 1) waist or bodice of a dress; 2) arrangement of flowers worn as a fashion accessory

corset – n. 1) close-fitting undergarment, often reinforced by stays worn to support and shape the waistline, hips and breasts; 2) medieval outer garment, especially a laced jacket or bodice

cosmetic – n. any preparation applied to the body, especially the face, with the intention of beautifying it. – adj. 1) serving or designed to beautify the body, especially the face; 3) decorative rather than functional

costume – n. 1) style of dress including garments, accessories and hairstyle, especially as characteristic of a particular country, period or people; 2) outfit or disguise worn in a play by an actor or at a fancy dress ball; 3) set of clothes appropriate for a particular occasion or season. – v. 1) put a costume on; dress; 2) furnish the costumes for (a show, film, etc.)

costume design – n. design of the appearance of characters in a theater or cinema performance. This usually involves designing or choosing clothing, footwear, hats and head dresses for the actors to wear, but it may also include designing masks, makeup or other unusual forms

costume designer – n. person whose responsibility is to design costumes for a film or stage production

costume plot – n. list or chart that shows which characters appear in each scene, what they are wearing and their overall movement throughout the play

couture – n. high-fashion designing and dressmaking

couturier – n. fashion designer

craft -n. 1) special skill or technique especially in handiwork; 2) occupation or trade requiring special skill, especially manual dexterity; 3) members of such a trade regarded collectively. – v. make in a skilful way, especially by hand

craftsman – n. member of a skilled trade; someone who practises a craft, artisan

create –v.1) bring into existence; cause; 2) originate (actor creates a part); 3) be engaged in creative work

creative – adj. 1) having the ability to create; 2) characterized by originality of thought; having or showing imagination; 3) designed to or tending to stimulate the imagination. – n. creative person, especially one who devises advertising campaigns

crinoline – n. 1) stiff fabric originally of horsehair and linen used in lining garments; 2) petticoat stiffened with this worn to distend skirts, especially in the mid 19th century

Cubism – n. one of the most influential art movements of the 20th century. In cubist artworks objects are broken up, analyzed and re-assembled in an abstracted form. Instead of depicting objects from one viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to represent it in a greater context

cultural movement – n. change in the way a number of different disciplines approach their work. This embodies all art forms, the sciences and philosophies

culture – n. 1) intellectual and artistic achievement or expression; 2) refined appreciation of arts, etc.; 3) customs,achievements, etc. of a particular civilization or group (Chinese culture); 4) particular civilization at a particular period

curly – n. having or arranged in curls

cushion – n. pad or pillow with soft filling used for resting, reclining or kneeling

customer – n. 1) one that buys goods or services; 2) individual with whom one must deal

cutting – n. 1) piece cut off from the main part of something; 2) process of shaping and forming (a dress); 3) article, photograph, etc. cut from a newspaper or other publication

D

damask – n. reversible figured woven fabric, especially white table linen. – adj. made of damask

dancer – n. performer who dances professionally

decor (décor) – n. 1) style or scheme of interior decoration, furnishings, etc. as in a room or house; 2) stage decoration; scenery

decoration – n. 1) act, process, technique or art of decorating; 2 ) something used to decorate

decorative art – n. ornamental and functional work in ceramic, wood, glass, metal or textile. The field includes ceramics, furniture, furnishings, interior design and architecture

delineate – v. 1) trace the shape or outline of; sketch; 2) represent pictorially as by making a chart or diagram; depict

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