The gerund and the infinitive compared

I. Only the gerund is used (in different functions) after the following verbs:

to avoid to fancy practise

to appreciate to forgive to put off

to admit to imagine to recall

to celebrate to mention to recollect

to consider to mind to resent

to deny to miss to resist

to enjoy to postpone to risk

to excuse to feel like to suggest

to burst out to fall to to finish

to quit to give up

to keep on can’t help (stand, face)

II. Only the infinitive is used after the following verbs:

to advise

to forbid

to permit

to help

can’t afford

III. The gerund and the infinitive are interchangeable (express the same):

1. as part of a compound aspective predicate after aspective verbs (except the verb to stop). After to stop the gerund is used when it suggests the end of the action
denoted by the gerund; the infinitive is used as an adverbial modifier
of purpose.

Stop smoking!

He stopped to talk to his friend.

2. after the verbs to fear, to intend, to neglect, to propose, to attempt,

III. The gerund and the infinitive express different meanings used

GERUND	INFINITIVE
after the verbs to like, to love, to prefer, to hate, to dread, can’t bear
the gerund expresses a more general or habitual action: I hate interrupting people.	the infinitive is used mostly with reference to a special concrete occasion: I hate to interrupt you, but I have to.
after to be afraid
When followed by a gerund (to be afraid of doing smth) this expression shows that there is a possibility of some bad results. We walked very carefully along the icy path. We were afraid of falling.	When followed by an infinitive (to be afraid to so smth) it denotes an intentional action: I’m afraid to do something = I don’t want to carry out an action because I’m afraid He was afraid to tell his parents about the broken window. (he didn’t want to do it because he knew they would be angry)
Compare: I was afraid to go near the dog because I was afraid of being bitten.
after the verb to remember
the gerund expresses a prior action: I remember calling on him that day.	the infinitive expresses a future action: Remember to call on him after dinner.
after the verb to forget
the gerund shows that a person accomplished an action but forgot about the fact: I forgot shutting the window. (Я забыл, что закрыл окно).	The infinitive shows that the action didn’t take place: I forgot to shut the window. (Я забыл закрыть окно).
after the verb to regret
the gerund expresses a prior action: I regret saying it to him.	the infinitive expresses a simultaneous action: I regret to say but you are not among the invited.
after the verb to try
When to try is followed by a gerund it expresses the idea of experiment (попробовать, испытать): He hurt his right hand so he tried writing with his left.	When followed by an infinitive (to try to so smth) it means to make an attempt (стараться): Try to write more carefully.
after the verb to mean
Means doing expresses the idea of some result: I have to start work earlier this week. This will mean getting up earlier.	To mean to do smth= to intend to do smth I meant to ring you up yesterday.
after the verb to go on
to go on + gerund suggests the continuation of the action denoted by the gerund and forms part of compound verbal predicate: I wouldn't go on thinking about it.	the infinitive points out a new stage in the sequence of actions: He welcomed the new pupils and went on to explain the school regulations.

When you go on a foreign holiday, the first thing you must remember to pack/ packing is your dictionary.

You could of course stop to buy / buying one at the airport before you get on the plane. But what happens? The assistant says, 'Sorry, we've stopped to sell / selling those now.' No, buy one before you go. It may mean to run / running round town to find just what you want, but it'll be worth it. From the moment you book your holiday, you spend days trying to learn / learning all those little phrases that will make life easy while you're abroad.

And you have such good intentions! You mean to learn / learning at least five new phrases every day. And that means to set / setting aside time. So you take the book to work to study in your lunch hour and then forget to bring / bringing it home!

I've just come back from a holiday in Malawi. One day I went to a market and, without a dictionary, I started to talk to a young man selling fish. Unfortunately, although I didn't mean to be / being offensive, I must have said something that annoyed him. I remember to wake / waking up lying on the ground with a bleeding nose.

If only I had remembered to take /taking my dictionary with me!

GERUNDIAL COMPLEXES

A gerundial complex consists of a noun in the possessive case or a possessive pronoun (the secondary subject) and a gerund (the secondary predicate).

I hate his bothering me with silly questions. (a direct object)

The main trouble is her being often ill. (a predicative)

I don’t like the idea of the boys’ living here with us. (an attribute)

A gerundial complex therefore can be used in any function in the sentence.

If the noun denotes a lifeless thing it can’t be used in the possessive case so it is used in the common case.

I insist on the window being opened.

In modern English there is a tendency to use the common case even with such nouns which may be used in the possessive case and to use the objective case of personal pronouns. The –ing form in such constructions is considered to be intermediate between the gerund and participle I and is called a half-gerund (or a semi-gerund) and the constructions are called half-gerundial.

Compare:

I insist on Tom’s (his) doing it. (a gerundial complex)

I insist on Tom (him) doing it. (a half-gerundial complex)

I saw Tom (him) doing it. (a complex object with participle I)

To distinguish a predicative complex with a half-gerund from a complex object with participle I we must bear in mind that the latter may be used only after the verbs of sense perception.

Note. A possessive pronoun is not used before the gerund if the actions denoted by the gerund and the predicate are performed by the same person:

I remember seeing him.

I remember his seeing me.

THE VERBAL NOUN

The verbal noun has the same form as the indefinite active gerund but since it’s a noun it differs from the gerund in the peculiarities of use.

1. It has the plural form:

Sufferings, goings, comings

2. It may take either of the articles:

You’ve provided a good beginning for this story.

I didn’t like the beginning of the story.

3. The gerund is modified by an adverb while the verbal noun is modified by an adjective:

Dancing lightly and riding well were the things that mattered.

On the way he would do some serious thinking about the future.

4. The gerund is followed by a direct object while the verbal noun is followed by an of-phrase (a prepositional object):

I didn’t mind telling you about it.

She heard only the beating of her heart.

Participle I

Its features and forms

The participle is intermediate between the verb and the adjective and partially between the verb and the adverb.

1. Like the adjective participle I can function as an attribute to the noun. Participle I in this function corresponds to the Russian причастие:

The rising sun was hidden by the clouds. (восходящее солнце)

2. Like the adverb participle I can function as an adverbial modifier corresponding to the Russian деепричастие:

Having no time I couldn’t get there. (не имея времени)

Having finished my lessons I went home. (окончив уроки)

Having slept for two hours he felt rested.

Having been warned about the bandits, he left his valuables at home.

3. Like the verb participle I

a) can take a direct object:

She sat in the armchair reading a newspaper.

b) can be modified by an adverb:

The captain walked up and down looking straight before him.

c) has voice and tense distinctions.

The forms of participle I

Active Passive

Indefinite running ---------

sending being sent

Perfect having run -----------

having sent having been sent

Like the infinitive and the gerund the tense distinctions of participle I are relative, not absolute (the indefinite form expresses simultaneity, the perfect form expresses priority).

Note 1. When used as an adverbial modifier of time Participle I non-perfect denoting short terminative actions (to arrive, to close, to open, to reach, to pass, to see, to think, to come, etc.) can express priority. In these cases the action of the predicate closely follows that of the participle:

Arriving at the station I called a porter.

Hearing a noise in the yard, I looked out of the window.

Entering the room that evening Mary found a letter from her son.

Taking off our shoes, we tiptoed into the nursery.

Participle I perfect expresses an action prior to the action of the predicate and functions as an adverbial modifier of reason:

Having failed twice, he didn't want to try again.

Having seen the girl long ago, I didn't recognize her.

Not having seen her for a long time I didn't recognize her.

THE FUNCTIONS OF PARTICIPLE I IN THE SENTENCE

Participle I can be used in two syntactic functions:

1. as an attribute

In this function single participle I is always used in pre-position to the noun:

They looked at the flying plane.

When used in post-position to the noun it is part of an attributive participle phrase:

The student answering the question is the best in his group.

In this function it corresponds to the Russian действительное причастие настоящего времени.

Participle I Indefinite Passive is very seldom used as an attribute.

Note. Participle I perfect is never used in this function. To express priority an attributive subordinate clause is used:

The boy who broke the window has left.

I've just talked to the students who came back from London yesterday.

Compare:

I looked at the girl sitting at the window. (a simultaneous action)

The girl who had been sitting at the window went away. (a prior action) (having sat)

2. as an adverbial modifier ( corresponds to деепричастие)

All forms are used here.

a) of time

Approaching home I saw him.

Having finished his work he left home.

In this function Participle I Indefinite Active can be preceded by the conjunctions when or while:

While reading the text I noticed some mistakes.

Don't forget articles when speaking English.

Note. Participle I Indefinite of the verb to be is not used as an adverbial modifier of time. Clauses of the type Когда он был в Лондоне,.., Когда он был ребенком,.. are translated When in London..., When a child.... It means When he was in London,.., When he was a child..

b) of cause (or reason). All forms of Participle I are used here.

Having left school at twelve he had no qualifications.

The most frequently used Non-Perfect Participle I of verbs denoting mental perception and emotions are: knowing, realizing, remembering, hoping, expecting, fearing and also being and having.

Hoping to meet her, he left the house.

Being hungry, he rushed to the fridge.

Having plenty of time we didn't hurry.

Not knowing where to go I turned back.

Note. Participle I of the verb to be (being) when used as an adverbial modifier will always be an adverbial modifier of cause.

Being a stranger in the town, he had to ask the way - As he was a stranger in the town,...

c) of manner or attending circumstances. In this function Participle I Indefinite is mostly used.

She began to walk carefully counting her steps.

He was silent, looking at his hands.

d) of unreal comparison (as if; as though)

She looked at me as though seeing me for the first time.

He spoke as if translating from a foreign language.

PARTICIPLE I AND THE GERUND

1. Used as an attribute

a) in pre-position to the noun a single gerund denotes the function (purpose) of the noun it modifies, while participle I denotes an action fulfilled by the noun:

GERUND PARTICIPLE I

a sitting-room a sitting girl

a swimming pool a swimming man

a sleeping car a sleeping child

a skating-rink

a washing machine

a looking glass

b) in post-position to the noun it modifies participle I is never prepositional while the gerund is always preceded by either of or for:

I don’t see any chance of getting there before sunset. (a gerund)

There was no reason for t elling him about it.

The house had two windows looking over the street. (participle I)

2. Used as an adverbial modifier

a) of time participle I is never prepositional while the gerund always is:

Closing the door he went downstairs. (participle I) = On closing the door he went downstairs (a gerund).

Having said it he stood up and went out. = After saying it he stood up and went out.

After + a gerund = Participle I there is a short interval between the action denoted perfect by the verbal and the action of the predicate verb

On (upon) + a gerund = Participle I the action of the verbal takes place

indefinite active of terminative verbs immediately after thet of the predicate verb, denoting short actions without any pause

At, in + a gerund = when, while +Participle I during

At seeing me there he burst out laughing.

b) of manner gerund is always found with a preposition (by/without) while participle I is non-prepositional:

He sat reading a book.

He left without saying good-bye.

She warned me by leaving me a message.

Mind the difference between:

Not + Participle I (why?)	Without + a gerund (how?)
It is used as an adverbial modifier of reason: Not knowing his address he couldn’t write. Not being used to such kind of work he soon got tired.	It is used as an adverbial modifier of manner or condition: He left without saying good bye. The boys couldn’t leave the school without asking for permission.

THE COMPLEX OBJECT AND THE COMPLEX SUBJECT WITH PARTICIPLE I

They are used only with the verbs of sense perception. The Complex Object follows the verbs to hear, to see, to watch, to find (=to see), to feel:

He found Nora reading a novel in their bedroom.

I saw him crossing the river.

The Complex Subject with participle I is used with three verbs only - to hear, to see, to find (=to see). The corresponding Russian translation is «видели, как», «слышали, как» + a verb in the imperfective aspect (несовершенный вид).

A car was heard arriving.

He was found sleeping.

Unlike the complex object and the complex subject with the infinitive that express completed actions the complexes with participle I express actions in progress and correspond to the Russian verb in the imperfective aspect:

We watched him approaching the gate slowly. – Мы наблюдали, как он медленно подходил к калитке.

We saw him approach the gate and enter the house. – Мы видели, как он подошел к калитке и зашел в дом.

PARTICIPLE II. ITS FORM AND FUNCTIONS

It has one form. It is always passive in meaning (which makes it identical in meaning to participle I passive). The functions of participle II:

1. an attribute

a broken chair, a faded flower, a closed door

2. a predicative:

I was greatly frightened.

You look rested.

The children were neatly dressed.

3. Used as an adverbial modifier it is always preceded by the conjunctions when, unless, though, once (как только, уж если):

When dressed I sat for a while by the window.

A promise accounts too little unless kept.

Our feelings once hurt are open to injury.

Once determined to have a fight Montmorency wouldn’t hesitate.

THE COMPLEX OBJECT WITH PARTICIPLE II

1. It is used with the verbs to have and to get and shows that something is done for the benefit of the person denoted by the subject. The subject is not the agent of the action denoted by participle II:

I want to have my room papered.

Why don’t you have your hair cut?

You can get your watch repaired.

To have one’s hair cut /dyed black/ permed

picture / photo taken

dress made

tooth pulled out / out

blood-pressure measured

room papered

boots cleaned, etc.

I am not accustomed to having my words doubted.

May I have a taxi called?

2. It is used after the verbs of sense perception: to see, to hear, to watch and the verb to wish:

I heard my name mentioned.

I want my photograph taken.

THE NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION

The N.A. construction consists of a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case and participle I or participle II. Any form of the participles can be used here. In the N.A. construction the participle has a subject of its own (expressed by a noun or a pronoun) different from that of the main sentence. It is always marked by a comma.

The N.A. construction functions as an adverbial modifier of time, cause, condition, manner or attending circumstances:

The question being settled, they parted. (an adverbial modifier of time)

The river having risen at night, the crossing was impossible. (an adverbial modifier of cause)

Weather permitting, we shall start tomorrow. (an adverbial modifier of condition)

She quickly went away, John silently following her. (an adverbial modifier of attending circumstances)

Participle I being can be omitted, then we have the N.A. construction without participle I:

The lecture over, we left the hall.

Everybody at home, we sat down to dinner.

He sat by the fire, pipe in mouth. (note the absence of the articles)

The N.A. construction may be introduced by the prepositions with or without though the use of the prepositions is optional:

He sat (with) his arms folded.

He walked, his head bent.

She looked even prettier with most of the make-up gone from her young face.

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