The Conquest of Western Ukraine

After the Mongol invasion of 1240 Western Ukraine managed to quickly recover and restore statehood in the form of Galicia-Volhynia principality. Located strategically on the major trade routs and possessing substantial deposits of salt, a valuable commodity in those days,[4] the principality prospered. Under Prince Danylo of Halych (1238-1264), Galicia-Volhynia reached the peak of its political influence. He subdued the powerful local aristocracy, defeated the German knights on his western borders, and tried to form a military coalition of several European states against the Mongols.[5] In 1253, in recognition of Danylo’s power and with the hope of converting West Ukrainians into Catholicism, the Roman Pope granted him the title of king. Danylo placed the Orthodox Church under the Pope’s jurisdiction. However, several years later he changed his mind and removed the church from Pope’s authority. Danylo built such major cities of Western Ukraine as Lviv (named in honor of his son Lev) and Kholm. Kholm became the capital of his principality and also his burial place.[6] After Danylo’s death the principality had been relatively stable until his dynasty died out in the 14^th century (1340). Taking advantage of the situation Poland and Lithuania invaded Western Ukraine. The result of the long struggle between Poland and Lithuania was the division of Western Ukraine (1387) into two parts: the Poles gained Galicia and the Lithuanians gained Volhynia. As to other western parts of the former Kyivan Rus, they were attached to Hungary in the 11^th century (Transcarpathia) and to Moldova in 1359 (Bukovyna).

The Union of Krevo (1385)

Both Poland and Lithuania had a common powerful enemy – the Teutonic Order of German knights. This threat caused the two countries to seek some kind of a defensive union against the Germans. In 1385, in a small Belarusian town named Krevo, the two sides concluded the Union of Krevo by means of a marriage between Polish Queen Jadwiga (she was only 12 years old) and Grand Prince of Lithuania Jogailo (he was 38 and still a bachelor).[7] According to the agreement Jogailo got the title of the king of Poland and was to attach all his lands to Poland. Besides, he also was to turn the Lithuanians into Catholicism. Some powerful nobles in Lithuania did not want their country to loose independence. They gathered around Jogailo’s cousin Vitovt, who managed to retain control of the Grand Principality of Lithuania. Though formally Vitovt was Jogailo’s subordinate, he was the real ruler of Lithuania. In fact, the union of Krevo was only dynastic. It means that Lithuania had the common with Poland king but was part of the union only formally. In fact it was independent.[8] The Union of Krevo, however, influenced cultural life in Lithuania (and Ukraine as its part). Many nobles accepted Catholicism and Polish customs.

In 1410 in the famous battle of Grunwald the Polish-Lithuanian army, considerable part of which consisted of Ukrainian, Russian, and Belarusian units, defeated the Teutonic Order. The Polish-Lithuanian troops were also helped in the battle by Tatars and Czechs.

The Union of Lublin (1569)

By the early 16^th century the Grand Principality of Lithuania was in decline. It lost several provinces to Russia (called at the time Muscovy) and was not able to defend its southern lands against Crimean Tatar military raids. Exhausted by wars against Russia and Crimea, the Lithuanians turned to Poland for aid. The middle and lower Lithuanian nobility were also attracted to Poland by the wide rights enjoyed by the Polish nobility. Thus it was mostly because of their pressure that the so-called Lublin Union was concluded.[9]

As a result of the union, Poland and Lithuania formed a single state called the Rzeczpospolita (republic) or the Commonwealth. The king (who was simultaneously the grand prince of Lithuania) was elected by Lithuanian and Polish nobility.[10] As a result of the union Lithuania retained autonomy[11] but it had to give all Ukrainian lands to Poland. Thus this event ended Lithuanian rule in Ukraine.

The Ukrainian nobility favored the attachment of Ukrainian lands to Poland. Compared to a very centralized but backward Russia, Poland seemed to them the best choice. Poland guaranteed their nobles wide political rights and privileges, legal protection and religious tolerance. For example, a Polish noble’s estate could not be confiscated without a court decision. Any Polish noble could not be arrested without court decision either. (In Russia the nobility was completely defenseless before the tsar). Polish courts were independent of the king. The Polish king’s power was seriously limited and looked democratic compared to the despotic power of the Moscow tsar. Only the Sejm (parliament) could make laws, and the king could not raise taxes or troops without its consent. He could not also start or end a war without the parliament’s permission.

In contrast to strictly Orthodox Russia, the Commonwealth was a tolerant state. The nobility included Poles, Lithuanians, Ruthenians (Ukrainians and Belarusians), Germans, Italians, Moldavians, Armenians, etc. ‘One is born noble, not Catholic’ was the motto. Catholics, Protestants and Orthodox could be senators in the Sejm.[12] However, since Poland officially was a Catholic state, it tried to promote Catholicism whenever it was possible. The Polish government believed that a single religion would better stimulate the unification of the state.

The Lublin Union promoted Polonization and Catholization of Ukraine but at the same time united all Ukrainian lands within Polish borders. Ukraine started to play an important role in international trade. Through Polish ports on the Baltic coast many Ukrainian goods (bread, cattle, wool, wax, etc) entered European markets. The szlachta undoubtedly benefited from the union. In contrast, the peasants were not pleased as their exploitation and religious oppression increased. Polish and Polonized szlachta often tried to convert peasants on their lands by force into Catholicism. Since religion was the major pillar of culture Catholicization also meant denationalization. Orthodox churches and monasteries were being closed down. Instead Catholic churches and monasteries were being built on Ukrainian lands.

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