Moscow’s Attitude to Ukraine

The incorporation of Ukraine in 1654 into the Russian empire stimulated Russia’s cultural development, since, in the 17^th century, Ukraine as a Polish province had much more developed culture than Russia. Many educated Ukrainians were offered high official posts in Russia. Sons of Russian nobles studied in Ukrainian secondary schools and Kyiv-Mohyla Academy.[7] Ukrainian scholars founded and staffed the first institution of higher education in Russia – The Slavonic-Greek-Latin Academy (1685) in Moscow as well as various secondary schools (especially for training the clergy) in Russian cities. In the 17^th – 18^th centuries Ukrainians filled the highest hierarchical positions in the Russian Orthodox Church including the major one (the head of Holy Synod).

Russia throughout its history has always been a very centralized state. So it looks quite natural that Moscow pursued a centralization policy in Ukraine. The Ukrainian Orthodox Church lost its independence and became part of the Russian Orthodox Church in 1686. The Greek Catholic Church was also transformed into the Russian Orthodox after western Ukraine became part of the Russian Empire. The Orthodox Church in Ukraine became an instrument of Russification and a major propagandist of the official imperial ideology. Ukrainian publishing houses were forbidden to print books in Ukrainian. The Ukrainian language was denied the status of a distinct language from Russian. It was considered as merely a dialect of Russian and it was not allowed to publish and teach in it. The teaching of Ukrainian history was also forbidden as it could stimulate the development of national consciousness. As to the Ukrainian nation it was considered as a branch of the Russian people. (It is interesting to note that many influential politicians in present-day Russia still consider the Ukrainians a branch of the Russian people). The very name “Ukraine” was forbidden by Moscow. The country was called Little Russia (Malorossiia) or Southern Russia (Iuzhno-Russkii krai). Russian tsars encouraged intermarriages between Russians and Ukrainians. Thus, Russia’s policy toward Ukraine was aimed at assimilation of the Ukrainian people and culture. By eradicating Ukrainian national consciousness Moscow planned to secure the state’s stability.

It should be noted however that Ukrainians in the Russian Empire were not discriminated against for jobs because of their nationality. All careers were opened for Ukrainians in the empire and many Ukrainians achieved the highest positions (including prime-minister) in the Russian hierarchical system. There could not be any discrimination as the official point of view in Russia denied the existence of Ukrainians as a nation. The Ukrainians were considered to be the Russians who had been artificially separated from Russia in the 13^th century and got first under Mongol, and later under Lithuanian and Polish control. As a result of these foreign influences the “Russians” in Ukraine were slightly changed in their language and mentality and “became” the Ukrainians. In the 17^th century, according to the Russian imperial viewpoint, Ukraine naturally reunited with its homeland – Russia.

Western Ukraine’s Political Developments under Poland and Austria (XVII-XIX centuries)

In the 17^th century Ukraine was divided between Poland and Russia. Western Ukraine got first under Polish (14^th century) and later, at the end of the 18^th century, under Austrian control. For several centuries Western Ukraine had been separated from Eastern Ukraine. As a result of that separation the cultural differences between Eastern and Western Ukrainians evolved.

Poland tried to Polonize Ukraine. Ukrainian schools were closed and all Ukrainian nobles exchanged their Ukrainian Orthodox culture for that of Polish and Catholic. Polish rulers, like their Russian colleagues, claimed that there was not any separate Ukrainian nation. The Ukrainians, according to their view, were a branch of the Polish people. The Ukrainian language, consequently, was declared to be a Polish dialect. (Attempts were made to change it from Cyrillic into Latin alphabet). The aim of such policy was as much pragmatic as Russia’s Ukrainian policy: to eradicate Ukrainian culture and make assimilation easier. One religion and one language erase the differences and make a state stable. Poland’s cultural policy in Western Ukraine was successful. All Ukrainian nobility and rich burghers were Catholicized and Polonized. The peasantry’s national consciousness was extremely low. Peasants perceived themselves as locals („тутешні”), and not as a distinct nationality. Their interests were local. They did not understand that they belonged to a broader cultural group. The society was generally divided not into two different nations but rather into two social groups: пани (nobles) and селяни (peasants).

The situation changed when Poland got under Austrian rule. To secure control over its eastern provinces Austria tried to split the Ukrainians and the Poles. The Austrian government applied the classic “divide and rule” policy. With that aim the Austrians started to foster the development of Ukrainian culture to make the Ukrainians as much distinct from the Poles as possible. Austria needed a counterbalance to the Polish political dominance in its eastern provinces. So it decided to use the Ukrainians for the creation of that counterbalance. The Austrian government opened and financed Ukrainian-language schools and Ukrainian cultural organizations. It helped Ukrainians to establish their first political organizations and newspapers.[8] Generally speaking, thanks to the support of the Austrian government, Ukrainian culture in the Austrian Empire was in a much more favorable position than in the Russian Empire, where it was often persecuted. It is interesting to note that at first the Austrians faced the same problems as the hromadas in Russian-Ruled Ukraine concerning the Ukrainian language. For example, when in 1809 the Austrian government opened a Ukrainian institute (Studium Ruthenium)[9] in Lviv with Ukrainian as the language of instruction, it had to be closed as Ukrainians refused to study in their own language; they preferred to be taught in a “civilized” language (Polish or German). This fact proves that national consciousness in Western Ukraine was low at the time even among educated Ukrainians. Only several Galician intellectuals influenced by Romanticism showed interest in the development of Ukrainian culture and raising national consciousness among the people. In 1837 a group of Galician student youth called Ruska Triitsia [10] published an almanac Rusalka Dnisrtovaia [11] (a collection of peasants’ folklore), and expressed an idea that Eastern and Western Ukrainians constituted the same nation.[12] The almanac also glorified social movements and leaders of uprisings that provoked criticism from both Ukrainian[13] and Polish conservative circles and led to troubles with the publication of the book.

The Polish nobles were very upset by Austria’s pro-Ukrainian cultural policy. They even accused the Austrians of “inventing” the Ukrainian nation.[14] This policy brought good results to the Austrians. During the revolution of 1848 the Ukrainians helped the Austrians to put down the Polish uprising. The integrity of the Austrian empire was saved. In contrast to Russia, Austria did not try to assimilate the Ukrainians because it was impossible. Firstly, Austrian (Germanic) and Ukrainian (Slavic) cultures were too different. Secondly, since the Austrians constituted a small minority in their empire, any kind of assimilation policy was impossible.

Austria was also a developed European country with the rule of law and other democratic procedures. West Ukrainians benefited greatly from that. They had full political rights: could elect and be elected to the Austrian parliament; could have their own cultural and political organizations, etc. In general, Ukrainians in the Austrian empire could enjoy various democratic freedoms unthinkable in Russia. Thanks to Polish and Austrian influences West Ukrainians developed a more pro-European culture than East Ukrainians.

As a result of Austria’s cultural policy West Ukrainians developed a strong sense of national consciousness in contrast to East Ukrainians who were heavily Russified. Another aim of Austria’s pro-Ukrainian policy in Galicia was to sow the seeds of separatism in Ukrainian part of the Russian empire and undermine Russia’s claims for Western Ukraine as ‘ancient Russian lands’ populated by the descendants of the Old Rus Nationality.[15]

It should be also noted that nationally conscious intellectuals form Eastern Ukraine (many of them were Hromada members) often visited Western Ukraine and helped West Ukrainians in creating a powerful national movement. They took active part, for example, in creation of Prosvita, a powerful cultural organization in Western Ukraine. Prosvita published Ukrainian books, created Ukrainian libraries and Sunday schools. In 1873, also with the help of Hromada members from Eastern Ukraine, the Shevchenko Scientific Society was created in Lviv. In fact it became the first Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. Hromada members actively used Western Ukraine for publication and exportation of Ukrainian literature to Eastern Ukraine between the Valuiev and Ems edicts.

Not all Ukrainians in the Austrian Empire developed Ukrainian self-consciousness. There was quite an influential group of the Russophiles generally known as Москвофіли. This group was financed by Russia. It had several cultural centers, publishing houses, libraries, newspapers and magazines. The Russophiles propagated the idea that all Ukrainians (Eastern and Western) were part of the Russian people. The Russophiles were pro-Russian not only because of Russia’s financial support. The feeling of belonging to the powerful Russian nation enhanced their self-esteem. The Russophiles’ ideas were harmful to the integrity of the Austrian Empire. No wonder that the Austrian government did everything it could to weaken the Russophile movement. (It is interesting to note that the Russophiles were also supported by the Poles who wanted to split the Ukrainian national movement).

In 1867 the Austrian Empire was transformed into the Austro-Hungarian Empire. That event was important for the Ukrainians of Transcarpathia (Закарпаття) because it placed the region under Hungarian jurisdiction. In contrast to the Austrians, the Hungarians wanted to eradicate the Ukrainian movement in the region and to transform the local Ukrainian population into Hungarians. Ukrainian cultural organizations and newspapers were closed. Hungarian replaced Ukrainian in schools. As a result of such policy many Ukrainians in Transcarpathia accepted the Hungarian language and culture.

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