In 1853-56 the Crimean War occurred between Russia on one side and the allied forces of England, Turkey, France, and Sardinia on the other side. The war clearly showed the backwardness of the Russian Empire compared to England and France. The military equipment was obsolete; communication systems and bureaucracy were inefficient. Russia also lacked railroads and steamers. It was clear now that radical reforms were needed. Frustrated by the humiliated defeat Tsar Nikolai I died in 1855. The new emperor Alexander II started an ambitious program of wide-scale reforms.
In 1861 serfdom was abolished as it was the main obstacle for the development of capitalism. Compulsory labor was never efficient. Freed peasants could now be hired at factories and plants which needed them badly or become independent farmers.
In 1864 the judicial reform was carried out. Everybody became equal before the law. The courts became independent from state administration. Judges were elected now rather than appointed. The institutions of juries and attorneys were introduced. Legal proceedings became open for public. The judicial reform made people feel more secure about their businesses and careers and stimulated their activity.
The same year the so-called zemstvo reform was conducted. It meant that rural regions (povity) got the right to a limited self-government which made them more flexible and efficient for the development of capitalism and improving local living conditions. Zemstva built many schools, hospitals, roads, etc.
In 1870 cities got the right to self-rule. The most capable city-dwellers could be elected now to city councils, called dumas.
The educational reform (1864) introduced a single system of primary education, improved the system of secondary schools, and granted autonomy to universities.
The military reform (1864-1883) established a universal military service (6 years in ground forces and 7 years in the navy). Before the reform the soldiers served for 25 years. The army was rearmed. Corporal punishments were abolished.
The reforms stimulated the socio-economic modernization of the Russian Empire; promoted the democratization of society and educational system; enforced the role of law. Industry and trade started to grow rapidly, urbanization increased sharply, many peasants became hired workers. The reforms opened the way for the establishment of industrial society.
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