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Aim: to improve students’ skills in the knowledge of Paralanguage
Plan:
Recommendations:
1. Paralanguage refers to the nonverbal elements of speech – such as vocal pitch, intonation, and speaking tempo – that can be used to communicate attitudes, convey emotion, or modify meaning. In simple terms, paralanguage can be thought of as how something is said rather than what is said. The study of paralanguage is known as “paralinguistics.” Early work on paralanguage emerged in the 1950s with the pioneering research of George Trager and Henry Lee Smith (Hall & Trager 1953; Trager 1958), who noted that kinesics (body movements) and vocalics (voice quality and other aspects of the voice) are part of the language system. Building on their work, other researchers focused on vocal pauses (hems, ahs, coughs), speaking rate, volume, and quality (Pittenger et al. 1960). Since that time, paralanguage has been studied and applied to numerous domains including psychiatry, child development, courtship (→ Interpersonal Attraction), and deception (→ Deceptive Message Production). The idea that how one says something may impact the meaning of what is said is a familiar concept. Most often, humans use paralanguage purposefully, though perhaps subconsciously, as many of these patterns have been learned since infancy. For example, when something is said sarcastically, the voice may take on a negative tone to accompany a positive word or phrase, or particular intonations may modify.
Paralanguage refers to the non-verbal elements of communication used to modify meaning and convey emotion. Paralanguage may be expressed consciously or unconsciously, and it includes the pitch, volume, and, in some cases, intonation of speech. Sometimes the definition is restricted to vocally-produced sounds. The study is known as paralinguistics.
The term 'paralanguage' should not be confused with kinesics, or the study of body language. While kinesics is non-linguistic, it is not necessarily related to vocal or written language: paralanguage is. Paralinguistic information, because it is phenomenal, belongs to the external speech signal (Ferdinand de Saussure's parole) but not to the arbitrary conventional code of language (Saussure's langue).
The paralinguistic properties of speech play an important role in human speech communication. There are no utterances or speech signals that lack paralinguistic properties, since speech requires the presence of a voice that can be modulated. This voice must have some properties, and all the properties of a voice as such are paralinguistic. However, the distinction linguistic vs. paralinguistic applies not only to speech but to writing and sign language as well, and it is not bound to any sensory modality. Even vocal language has some paralinguistic as well as linguistic properties that can be seen (lip reading, McGurk effect), and even felt, e.g. by the Tadoma method.
Linguistic aspects
Ordinary phonetic transcriptions of utterances reflect only the linguistically informative quality. The problem of how listeners factor out the linguistically informative quality from speech signals is a topic of current research.
Some of the linguistic features of speech, in particular of its prosody, are paralinguistic or pre-linguistic in origin. A most fundamental and widespread phenomenon of this kind is described by John Ohala as the "frequency code".[4] This code works even in communication across species. It has its origin in the fact that the acoustic frequencies in the voice of small vocalizers are high while they are low in the voice of large vocalizers. This gives rise to secondary meanings such as 'harmless', 'submissive', 'unassertive', which are naturally associated with smallness, while meanings such as 'dangerous', 'dominant', and 'assertive' are associated with largeness. In most languages, the frequency code also serves the purpose of distinguishing questions from statements. It is universally reflected in expressive variation, and it is reasonable to assume that it has phylogenetically given rise to the sexual dimorphism that lies behind the large difference in pitch between average female and male adults.
In text-only communication such as email, chatrooms and instant messaging, paralinguistic elements can be displayed by emoticons, font and color choices, capitalization and the use of non-alphabetic or abstract characters. Nonetheless, paralanguage in written communication is limited in comparison with face-to-face conversation, sometimes leading to misunderstandings.
C. Paralanguistics (G.L. Trager)
1. Concerned with the "boarderline area" between verbal and nonverbal communication--focused on sounds that are not a part of language but appear to play an important role in the communication process.
2. Identified a set of sounds that he called the "para" (beside) dimension of language--now commonly referred to as "paralinguistic" symbols.
3. Four general types of paralinguistic symbols:
a. Vocal qualities -- concerned with the stable qualities of speech (e.g., rate, rhythm)
b. Vocal qualifiers -- concerned with momentary variations in the manner in which verbal symbols are presented (e.g., volume, force, pitch)
c. Vocal characterizers -- sounds that can stand alone as symbols because they can be interpreted as having a specific meaning (e.g., laughing, yelling, crying, grunting).
d. Vocal segregates -- sounds that regulate the flow of verbal conversation (e.g., uh, um, ah-ha)
2. The graphical aspect of a written discourse can be equalled to the sound images in a spoken discourse (Urbanová 2002: 32; translation mine). Graphics is what is first encountered when approaching a text. The visual effect of graphical devices certainly contributes to the perception of the text and creates expectations about it. Graphical level consists of the use of graphics, any photos or pictures that accompany the text, the use of colours, font, or size for highlighting the text. “The layout and graphical highlighting are important tools that help
express specific meanings and their nuances in a written text” (Urbanová 2002: 32; translation mine). Crystal formulates it in this way “the choices of type-size or colour in text are essentially non-linguistic, but they too may have clear linguistic implications … relating to the semantic structure of the utterance … or even to its grammatical structure” (1969: 17). Therefore it can be seen that the graphical level has an impact on the meaning of the text.
Of course, different sorts of written discourse will have different demands on the use of particular graphical devices and there are genres where graphical level has its established form as in newspapers or letters and is therefore more significant. On the other hand, in case of notes or messages the organisation of the text may be quite haphazard.
When speaking about text organisation it has to be mentioned that the layout of the text is significant as well. A text may be divided into paragraphs, chapters or even form a shape as in case of modernist poetry. This contributes to the way the text is processed and to its overall comprehension. A text can further contain margin notes, guide questions, or glossary of terms that refer back to it and thus influence the way it is read.
However, a speech is primarily written to be read aloud and therefore a typographic arrangement is secondary here. After all, it is usually only the speaker who comes in contact with the written form.
3.Kinesics is the interpretation of body language such as facial expressions and gestures — or, more formally, non-verbal behavior related to movement, either of any part of the body or the body as a whole.
The term was first used (in 1952) by Ray Birdwhistell, an anthropologist who wished to study how people communicate through posture, gesture, stance, and movement, and later popularised during the late 1960's by members of the counter-culture seeking to de-verbalize human communication[ citation needed ]. Part of Birdwhistell's work involved making film of people in social situations and analyzing them to show different levels of communication not clearly seen otherwise. The study was joined by several other anthropologists, including Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson.
Drawing heavily on descriptive linguistics, Birdwhistell argued that all movements of the body have meaning (i.e. are not accidental), and that these non-verbal forms of language (or paralanguage) have a grammar that can be analyzed in similar terms to spoken language. Thus, a "kineme" is "similar to a phoneme because it consists of a group of movements which are not identical, but which may be used interchangeably without affecting social meaning". (Knapp 1972:94-95)
Birdwhistell estimated that "no more than 30 to 35 percent of the social meaning of a conversation or an interaction is carried by the words." (Birdwhistell, 1985: 158). He also concluded that there were no universals in these kinesic displays - a claim disproved by Paul Ekman's analysis of universals in facial expression.[ citation needed ]
A few Birdwhistell-isms are as follows:
Kinesics are an important part of non-verbal communication behavior. The movement of the body, or separate parts, conveys many specific meanings and the interpretations may be culture bound. As many movements are carried out at a subconscious or at least a low-awareness level, kinesic movements carry a significant risk of being misinterpreted in an intercultural communications situation.
What is nonverbal communication?
A. Ray Birdwhistell (http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/abcde/birdwhistell_ray.html), a pioneer in nonverbalcommunication research, argues that nonverbal communication can be differentiated from verbal communication o n the basis of the TYPES OF SYMBOLS used to convey meaning.
B. Nonverbal communication relies of NON-LINGUISTIC SYMBOLS. What makes a symbol "non-linguistic" is that it is not recognized as a component of any written or spoken LANGUAGE.
II. Types of Nonverbal Code Systems
A. Kinesics (Ray Birdwhistell)
1. Human communication is complex multi-channel phenomenon--people typically utilize more than one form of symbolism in their efforts to communicate to others.
2. Believed in the existence of a linguistic-kinesic link--direct relationship between language production and accompanying bodily actions.
3. Argued that body movements ("kinesics") that accompany verbal speech is non-random--they have meaning which is related to the meaning of the verbal symbols produced by the individual.
4. Five major types of kinesics:
a. EMBLEMS -- body movements that have a precise meaning for a specific group of people.
Ex: Sign language
b. ILLUSTRATORS -- body movements that accompany speech and illustrate or clarify what is being described verbally.
(1) Pictographs -- gestures that indicate shapes.
(2) Spatial movements -- gestures that indicate size or volume.
c. ADAPTORS -- body movements that facilitate the release of tension, stress, or anxiety.
d. REGULATORS -- body movements that regulate or control the back-and-forth nature of conversation.
e. AFFECT DISPLAYS -- body movements (usually facial) that display feelings and emotions.
B. Proxemics (Edward Hall)
1. Interested in the relationship between talk and distance between communicators.
2. Believed that we maintain certain distances consistent with our perceptions of the nature of our relationship with those we are communicating with.
3. Coined the term "proxemics" to refer to the system of physical distances that communicators utilize in their communication with others.
a. "Public" distance (farthest)
b. "Social" distance
c. "Personal" distance
d. "Intimate" distance (closest)
4. Discovered that this system applies to virtually all cultures; but the specific distances within those categories tend to vary across cultures.
Control questions:
1. What is the notion of Paralanguage?
2. What are Visual Expressive Means (Graphetics and Graphology)?
3. What is Kinesics?
Literature:
1. Л.Л. Нелюбин. Лингвостилистика современного английского языка. М., 2007г
2.Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного английского языка. М., 1990
3. Кухаренко В.П. Семинары по стилистике. М., 1985
4. Galperin I. R. Stylistics. М., 1981
5. Кухаренко В.П. Интерпретация текста. М., 1984.
6. Разинкина Н.М, Функциональная стилистика. М., 1989.
7. Телия В.Н. Теория метафоры. М., Наука, 1990.
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