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1 Very low reported per capita GNP levels in less (to develop) countries underestimate true income as not all transactions (to record).
2 (to be) an important part of distribution process, wholesaling helps manufacturers and retailers to avoid the risk of a fall in demand, for example due to fashion changes.
2 Part of national spending includes the purchase of (to import) goods and services.
3 In the early 1950s the Indian government policy (to adopt) emphasized the state responsibility for setting up new industrial enterprises.
4 (To hold) stocks of goods wholesalers perform a valuable economic function (to maintain) the necessary level of goods supply.
5 While some domestic income leaks abroad, foreigners buy domestically (to produce) goods and services, the country's exports.
6 The LDCs (to allow) private sector to develop and expand will be able to enjoy significant gains from trade in the near future.
7 (To destroy) by the Great Depression of the 1930s and World War II, international trade reached its level of 1928 only by the 1960s.
8 At the end of the 19th century, (to apply) innovation of refrigeration, Argentina became the main supplier of frozen meat to the world market.
10 Productive equipment (to include) in physical capital, the purchase of new equipment (to call) investment.
11 Even (to be limited) by import quotas and various export restrictions, the value of international commerce, that is exports plus imports, (to increase) steadily throughout the world.
12 (To design) by the British government in 1984, special changes in government policy made financial aid more available to service industries (to know) as more labour-intensive and (to require) the job creation.
Exercise 14: Translate the Russian parts of the sentences into English using participles:
1. Налагая таможенные тарифы, the governments protect domestic producers.
Наложив таможенные тарифы, the government protected domestic producers.
Когда они налагаются, customs tariffs protect domestic producers.
Когда они были наложены, customs tariffs protected domestic producers.
2. Содействуя международной торговле, the government increases the wealth of its nation.
Оказав содействие международной торговле, the government increased the wealth of its nation.
Когда международной торговле содействует правительство, foreign trade increases the wealth of the nation.
Когда правительство оказало содействие международной торговле, foreign trade increased the wealth of the nation.
3. Признавая принцип относительного преимущества, a nation gains from trading certain goods.
Признав принцип относительного преимущества, a nation gained from trading certain goods.
Когда его признают, the principle of comparative advantage helps the nation to gain from trading certain goods.
Когда он был признан, the principle of comparative advantage helped the nation to gain from trading certain goods.
4. Покупая товары в небольших количествах, retailers sell them directly to consumers.
Купив товары в небольших количествах, retailers sold them directly to consumers.
Если их покупают в небольших количествах, the goods are sold by retailers directly to consumers.
После того как они были куплены в небольших количествах, the goods were sold by retailers directly to consumers.
5. Участвуя в производственной специализации, the developing countries help their depressed sectors.
Приняв участие в производственной специализации, the developing countries helped their depressed sectors.
Вовлеченные в мировое производство, the developing countries can help their depressed sectors of economy.
После того, как они были вовлечены в мировое производство, the developing countries could help their depressed sectors of economy.
6. Внедряя новшества в производственный процесс, the company competes successfully with its partners for expanding its potential market.
Внедрив новшество в производственный процесс, the company expanded its potential market.
Внедряемые в производственный процесс, the innovations help companies to compete successfully at the market.
После того как они были внедрены, the innovations helped the company to expand its potential market.
7. Используя кредитные карточки, the busy people can relatively easily purchase goods by mail or telephone.
Использовав кредитные карточки, the busy people could purchase relatively easily some goods by mail or telephone.
Если они используются для покупки товаров по почте или телефону, credit cards help the busy people to economize much time.
Когда они были использованы для покупки товаров по почте, the credit cards helped the busy people to economize much time.
Exercise 15: Translate the following sentences into English:
1. На прошлой неделе один доллар был равен 29 рублям.
2. Курс фунта вырос и составил 46 рублей за один фунт стерлингов.
3. Курс франка находится на том же уровне, что и вчера: 7 франков за один доллар.
4. Две немецких марки сегодня равны одному доллару.
5. Курс Йены упал до 109 йен за один доллар.
6. На Лондонской бирже отмечен рост курса эскудо к доллару.
7. Курс рубля резко упал вчера.
8. На прошлой неделе курс итальянской лиры к доллару не изменился.
Exercise 16: Translate the sentences into Russian:
1 The United States trade policy has passed through an era of self-sufficiency in which high tariffs, import quotas and other means were used to protect domestic industries and to maintain the country's economic security.
2 The acceptance of the principle of international cooperation means that the first and the most important thing any nation can do is to achieve and maintain a high level of domestic prosperity.
3 Direct or indirect subsidies are government payments to aid domestic industry if it is subjected to unfavourable competitive conditions in foreign trade.
4 In the "pure" economical theory of international trade economists discuss questions such as the determination of comparative advantage by examining the real resources (physical qualities of land, labour and capital) used to make diverse goods in various countries.
5 The international monetary system is supposed to provide a medium of exchange for foreign transactions in the world economy, the operation of the system of international payments being of special interest to economists.
6 Exports of manufactured goods produced in LDCs to industrial countries have led to complaints in developed countries that jobs are being threatened by competition from cheap foreign labour.
7 According to economic theory there always exists an exchange rate that will allow the country to produce at least one good more cheaply than other countries when all goods are valued in a common currency.
8 Through international exchange countries supply the world economy with the commodities that they produce relatively cheaply and demand from the world economy the goods that are made relatively cheaply elsewhere.
9 It has been proved that comparative advantage leads to specialization of different countries in different brands within the same industry, a country importing or exporting a good but not both.
10. Commercial policy is the government policy that influences foreign trade through taxes or subsidies or through direct restrictions on imports and exports.
Exercise 17: Translate the sentences into English:
1. Международная торговля, включающая обмен товарами и услугами между странами, привела к большей взаимозависимости между экономиками разных стран.
2. Важно, чтобы международная торговля позволяла стране специализироваться на тех товарах, которые она может производить дешевле и эффективнее, чем конкуренты.
3. Многие экономисты считают, что торговля, основанная на принципе относительного преимущества, дает возможность стране получать больше товаров, чем она может произвести, используя только свои ресурсы.
4. Принципы развития международной торговли, рассмотренные такими известными экономистами, как Адам Смит и Давид Риккардо, как полагают, являются основой современных экономических теорий.
5. Конкуренция как на мировом рынке, так и внутри страны заставляет производителей улучшать качество товаров, проводить модернизацию и вносить новшества, чтобы привлечь больше потребителей.
6. Развитие международной торговли позволяет стране расширить рынок товаров, более рационально использовать сырье и трудовые ресурсы, а также помочь ослабленным секторам местной экономики.
Text 2: Read the text, translate and entitle it:
Foreign trade being an essential part of a nation's economy, governmental restrictions are sometimes necessary to protect national interests. Government actions may occur in response to the trade policies of other countries or in order to protect specific depressed industries. Since the beginnings of foreign trade, nations have tried to maintain a favourable balance of trade - that is, to export more than they import.
Products are known to be bought and sold in the international market with national currencies. Seeking to improve its balance of international payments, that is, to increase reserves of its own currency and reduce the amount held by foreigners, a country may attempt to limit imports. The aim of such policy is to control the amount of currency that leaves the country.
One method of limiting imports is simply to close the channels of entry into a country. Usually maximum allowable (разрешенный) import quantities known as quotas may be set for specific products. These may also be used to limit the amount of foreign or domestic currency that is allowed to cross national borders. Having been imposed, quotas serve as the quickest means of stopping or even reversing (зд. изменять) a negative trend in a country's balance of payments as well as of protecting domestic industry from foreign competition.
Another common way of restricting imports is by imposing tariffs or taxes on imported goods. A tariff paid by the buyer of the imported product makes the price higher for that good in the importing country. The higher price reduces consumer demand, effectively restricting the import. The taxes collected on the imported goods also increase revenues for the nation's government. Tariffs also serve as a subsidy to domestic producers of the goods taxed because the higher price resulting from a tariff is an incentive for the competing domestic industry to expand production.
In recent years the use of non-tariff barriers to trade has increased. It may result in some administrative regulations that discriminate against foreign goods and in favour of domestic ones. These regulations may include various measures such as adopting special domestic tax policies or strict standards on imported goods, delaying imports at the country's boundaries, ordering government officers to use domestically produced goods. Direct government support of depressed domestic industries is considered as a non-tariff barrier to trade, as such support puts the aided industries at an unfair (несправедливый) advantage among trading nations. However, these barriers are not necessarily imposed by a government, for example an organized public campaigns "buy only American" or "don't buy beef of mad cows" may be effective as well.
Exercise 18: Complete the following sentences using Text 2:
1 Governmental restrictions in foreign trade can be imposed...
2 To increase the amount of national currency...
3 Quotas are known to be...
4 Both tariffs and taxes are used...
5 It is important that non-tariff barriers...
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