III. Find all the compound words in the text; translate them explaining the meaning of the parts.

IV. Insert a right article where it is necessary and explain the grammar rule:

1. … first vestiges of what would become … American football are found in … 19th century.

2. … game was played by … students at ….elite schools and...universities of …United States.

3. … particularly violent running game was played at …Princeton University circa …1820.

4. … American football developed … reputation as … high injury and high mortality …sport.

V. Translate the verbs in the brackets:

1. The rules of these games (отличались) from one another.

2. Some rules (разрешали) the use of hands, others (запрещали) it.

3. English rugby (считается) the root of Canadian football.

4. Canadian football (повлиял) American football’s development.

5. American football closely (напоминает) soccer.

6. Throwing or running with the ball (были разрешены).

VI. Answer the questions:

1. What is the difference between “running games” and “kicking games” with the ball? Give examples of every type.

2. What games are the ancestors of Canadian and American football?

3. What is the reputation of American football?

4. What has been done to prevent injury and mortality?

5. What is specific about modern American football?

Skiing

The first hints to the existence of skis are on 4500 to 5000 year old rock drawings in Norway which depict a man on skis holding a stick.

There are also remains of skis in bogs, with the oldest ski found in Russia 8000 years old. The word ski goes back to the Old Norse word meaning "a stick of wood".

Other history sources have it that skiing in Iran dates back to 2000 B.C., when ancient tribes are believed to have devised a ski board made from animal hide.

Different types of skis have emerged at various regions at about the same time. One suggested original inventors of skis seem to be the people in the mountain area in Asia. This is not verified. Also skis may have been used in Europe during and after the ice age. All in all there are three different types of skis in the North of Europe and Asia:

· The Southern type has a horizontal toe-piece binding. One can distinguish the Finnoscandian type and the Russo-Baltic type. Modern ski bindings are based on the Finnoscandian model of the 19th century. Cross-country skis were developed from the type used by the Lapps and some other Finno-Ugrics.

· Eastern Siberian type is a thin board with a vertical four-hole binding. Sometimes it is covered with fur.

· There is still another type. It has a horizontal stem-hole binding.

Ski poles go back to two roots:

· The walking stick was used to keep balance.

· The ski pole developed from a spear or a bow used for hunting. Double poles were used to reach a higher speed on skis, and better hunting.

Sondre Norheim has often been called the father of modern skiing for inventing the equipment and techniques that led to modern skiing. Having grown up in the farmlands of Norwegian Telemark, Norheim invented a “birch” binding that enabled skiers to ski without the risk of losing their skis. Then, in 1870, Norheim introduced a short, curved, flexible ski he crafted in order to allow for easy turning in soft snow. Norheim, at the age of forty-three, went on to become the winner of the first Norwegian downhill skiing competition in Christiania (modern day Oslo).

The usefulness of skis for military purpose speeded up their development and spread. The Norwegian military had skiing competitions from the 1670s.

Skis were used in the Sierra Nevada gold fields in 1850 and later to ferry mail from Carson City, Nevada to Placerville, California in 1856, crossing 94 miles (151 km) in 4 days.

Ski jumping and cross-country competition were events in the 1932 Winter Olympics at Lake Placid, New York. Third Winter Games of Olympics, at Garmisch 1936, include world's first alpine events: downhill and combined slalom.

The birth of competitive mogul skiing in the late 1960s led to freestyle: on-snow ballet, aerials and moguls grew to be considered legitimate forms of competitive skiing. Mogul skiing was added to the official program of the Albertville Games in 1992 and Aerials were added at the Lillehammer Games in 1994.

The growth of snowboarding in the 1980s appealed to a new generation of skiers. This injection of new, enthusiastic participants increased ski resort business and reinvigorated ski equipment design, leading to fatter, more stable skis. As with all youth movements, new vocabulary was required for the same old activities and sliding over snow became known as "riding", even for skiers. Various forms of competition developed, including traditional gate racing, but also half-pipe tricks, boarder-cross and extreme backcountry competitions.

Tasks:

I. Transcribe the following words and practise their pronunciation:

Norway, Norwegian, Iran, Russo-Baltic, Siberia, Finnoscandian, Finno-Ugric, Nevada, California, Lake Placid, Garmisch, Albertville, Lillehammer.

II. 1) Find the English equivalents of the word combinations in the text:

· древние племена,

· первые изобретатели,

· древнескандинавский,

· шкура животного,

· ледниковый период,

· наскальные изображения,

· лыжное крепление,

· рыхлый снег,

· саами,

· финно-угоры,

· военные цели,

· молодежные движения.

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