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1)The use of articles with the nouns day, night, morning, evening:
The nouns day, night, morning, evening are used without articles:
(a) if day und morning, mean 'light' and night and evening mean 'darkness', or if they denote a certain part of the day: Day is meant for work, night for sleep.
(b) in the expressions by day, at night, from morning till night:
It is easier to work by day than at night.
The definite article is used when these nouns are modified by a particularizing attribute or when the situation makes them definite:
He will never forget the day when he met her. The night was warm and beautifully still.
The definite article is also used in the expressions: in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening.
The indefinite article is used when the noun is modified by a descriptive attribute: I spent a sleepless night.
When the nouns morning and evening are modified by the adjectives early and late, no articles are used because these adjectives do not describe the morning or night, but only show the time: It was early morning when the train pulled into the little siding.
2) The use of articles with names of seasons.
Names of seasons are used without articles if they show a certain time of the year: It was spring. I like spring.
The definite article is used when these nouns are modified by a particularizing attribute or when the situation makes them definite: It happened in the spring of 1930. The spring was cold and rainy.
The indefinite article is used when these nouns are modified by a descriptive attribute: It was a cold spring.
When names of seasons are modified by the adjectives early or late, no articles are used: It was early spring.
3) The use of articles with the nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail.
The nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail are used without an article when they lose their concrete meaning and express the purpose for which the objects denoted by these nouns serve. When these nouns denote concrete objects, the articles are used according to the general principle.
(a) School, college.
to be at school, to go to school = to be a schoolboy (schoolgirl)
to be at college = to be a student of a college
to leave school = to finish or drop one's studies
It was at seventeen that he decided to leave school.
to go to the school = not as a pupil (the building is meant)
to leave the school = to leave the building
Mother went to the school yesterday to attend a parents' meeting. She left the school at 7 o’clock.
(b) Bed.
to go to bed — ложиться спать
to be in bed—лежать в постели
And now you had better go to bed. Good-night.
to be in the bed, to be on the bed = an article of furniture is meant: Неr portrait was on the wall beside the bed.
(c) Prison, jail.
to be in prison (in jail) = to be a prisoner
to be sent to prison, to be put in prison = as a prisoner
Mr. Dorrit was in prison many years.
Mr. Dorrit was sent to prison for debt.
to be in the prison, to go to the prison = not as a prisoner (the building is meant)
Mr. Dorrit's family lived in the prison.
4) The use of articles with the noun town.
The noun town when used with prepositions does not take an article:
(a) when we mean the nearest town (if we live in the country) or the town we live in: You cannot go to town tomorrow. (Austen)
(b) when the noun town is opposed to the noun country: He was not used to country life, having spent twenty years in town.
Otherwise the noun town is used with the definite or indefinite article: I want to go to the town where I was born.
12. Classification of pronouns. Personal, pronoun ‘one', possessive and reflexive pronouns.
Pronouns
The term 'pronoun' covers many words, some of which do not fall easily under the description given in the sectionWhat are Pronouns?There are many different kinds of pronouns. In general, these do not cause difficulties for native English speakers. The list below is mainly for reference purposes.
Demonstrative Pronouns
These pronouns are used to demonstrate (or indicate).This,that,theseandthoseare all demonstrative pronouns.
Examples:
Thisis the one I left in the car.
(In this example, the speaker could be indicating to a mobile phone, in which
case, the pronoun "this" replaces the words "mobile phone".)
Shall I takethose?
Indefinite Pronouns
Unlike demonstrative pronouns, which point out specific items, indefinite pronouns are used for non-specific things. This is the largest group of pronouns.All,some,any,several,anyone,nobody,each,both,few,either,none,oneandno oneare the most common.
Example:
Somebody must have seen the driver leave.
(somebody - not a specific person)
We areallin the gutter, but someo f us are looking at the stars. (Oscar Wilde)
I haven othingto declare except my genius. (Oscar Wilde)
Interrogative Pronouns
These pronouns are used in questions. Although they are classified as pronouns, it is not easy to see how they replace nouns.Who,which,what,whereandhoware all interrogative pronouns.
Example:
Who told you to do that?
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns are used to show possession. As they are used as adjectives, they are also known aspossessive adjectives.My,your,his,her,its,ourandtheirare all possessive pronouns.
Have you seen her book?
(In this example, the pronoun "her" replaces a word like "Sarah's".)
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns are used to add more information to a sentence.Which,that,who(includingwhomandwhose) andwhereare all relative pronouns.
Examples:
Dr Adam Sissons,who lectured at Cambridge for more than 12 years, should
have known the difference.
(In this example, the relative pronoun "who" introduces the clause "who studied
at Cambridge for 12 years" and refers back to "Dr Adams Sissons".)
The man who first saw the comet reported it as a UFO.
(In this example, the relative pronoun "who" introduces the clause "who first
saw the comet" and refers back to "the man".)
Absolute Possessive Pronouns
These pronouns also show possession. Unlike possessive pronouns (see above), which are adjectives to nouns, these pronouns sit by themselves.Mine,yours,his,hers,oursandtheirsare all absolute possessive pronouns.
Examples:
The tickets are as good asours.
Shall we takeyoursortheirs?
Reciprocal Pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns are used for actions or feelings that are reciprocated. The two most common reciprocal pronouns areeach otherandone another.
Examples:
They like oneanother.
They talk toeach otherlike they're babies.
Reflexive Pronouns
A reflexive pronoun ends...selfor...selvesand refers to another noun or pronoun in the sentence. The reflexive pronouns are:myself,yourself,herself,himself,itself,ourselves,yourselvesandthemselves.
Example:
John bakes all the breadhimself.
(In this example, the reflexive pronoun "himself" refers back to the noun "John".)
14. Demonstratives. Some, any, no, every and their compounds.
Demonstrative Pronouns
demonstrate (verb): to show; to indicate; to point to
A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things:
| near | far | |
| singular | this | that |
| plural | these | those |
Here are some examples with demonstrative pronouns, followed by an illustration:
Compounds of some/any/every/no
The verb is always singular after these compounds.
Compounds of SOME
· We use compounds of some in affirmative sentences:
Somebody/Someone left their wallet on my desk yesterday.
I want to do something interesting tonight.
My uncle wants to buy a house somewhere in Italy.
· We also use compounds of some in questions when we ask for something or offer something:
Can I have something to drink?
Compounds of ANY
· We use compounds of any in interrogative sentences:
Did you know anyone/anybody at the party.
Is there anything interesting on television tonight?
Did your parents go anywhere at Christmas?
· We also use compounds of any in negative sentences, after a negative verb or a negative adverb:
I didn’t buy anything at the supermarket.
We never go anywhere at the weekend.
There wasn’t anyone/anybody on the beach this morning.
Compounds of EVERY
Everybody/Everyone was at Jodie’s 21st birthday party.
She goes everywhere by car because she hates walking.
Everything in that shop is very expensive.
Compounds of NO
· We use compounds of no with an affirmative verb:
Nobody/No one wanted to go out last night, so we stayed at home.
I am really hungry because I had nothing for breakfast this morning.
Nobody/No one said anything about the exam.
What’s the matter? – Nothing .
Where did you go on holiday last summer? – Nowhere. We stayed in Seville.
Who did you see in the park? – No one/Nobody.
15. Either/neither/both, none/all/whole/each, (an)other.
A/ We use both/ neither/ either for two things. You can use these words with a noun (both books, neither book etc.).
For example, you are talking about going out to eat this evening. There are two restaurants where you can go. You say:
• Both restaurants are very good, (not 'the both restaurants')
• Neither restaurant is expensive.
• We can go to either restaurant. I don't mind, (either = one or the other, it doesn't matter which one)
B/Both of... / neither of... / either of...
When you use both/ neither/ either + of, you always need the... / these/ those... / my/ your/ his/
Tom's... (etc.). You cannot say 'both of restaurants'. You have to say 'both of the restaurants', 'both of those restaurants' etc.:
• Both of these restaurants are very good.
• Neither of the restaurants we went to was (or were) expensive.
• I haven't been to either of those restaurants. (= I haven't been to one or the other) You don't need of after both. So you can say:
• Both my parents are from London, or Both of my parents...
You can use both of / neither of / either of + us/you/them:
• (talking to two people) Can either of you speak Spanish?
• I asked two people the way to the station but neither of them knew.
You must say 'both of before us/ you/ them (of is necessary):
• Both of us were very tired, (not 'Both us were...')
After neither of... a singular or a plural verb is possible:
• Neither of the children wants (or want) to go to bed.
C/ You can also use both/ neither/ either alone:
• I couldn't decide which of the two shirts to buy. I liked both, (or I liked both of them.)
• 'Is your friend British or American?' ' Neither. She's Australian.'
• 'Do you want tea or coffee?' ' Either. I don't mind.'
D/ You can say:
| Both... and...: BothAnn and Tom were late. I was both tired and hungry when I arrived home. Neither... nor...: Neither Liz nor Robin came to the party. She said she would contact me but she neither wrote nor phoned. Either... or...:I'm not sure where he's from. He's either Spanish or Italian. |
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