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10.2.4 Base class............................................................................................................................. 280
10.2.5 Base interfaces..................................................................................................................... 280
10.2.6 Members.............................................................................................................................. 280
10.2.7 Partial methods..................................................................................................................... 281
10.2.8 Name binding....................................................................................................................... 283
10.3 Class members............................................................................................................................ 283
10.3.1 The instance type................................................................................................................. 285
10.3.2 Members of constructed types.............................................................................................. 285
10.3.3 Inheritance........................................................................................................................... 286
10.3.4 The new modifier................................................................................................................. 287
10.3.5 Access modifiers.................................................................................................................. 287
10.3.6 Constituent types.................................................................................................................. 287
10.3.7 Static and instance members................................................................................................. 287
10.3.8 Nested types......................................................................................................................... 288
10.3.8.1 Fully qualified name...................................................................................................... 289
10.3.8.2 Declared accessibility..................................................................................................... 289
10.3.8.3 Hiding............................................................................................................................ 289
10.3.8.4 this access...................................................................................................................... 290
10.3.8.5 Access to private and protected members of the containing type................................... 290
10.3.8.6 Nested types in generic classes....................................................................................... 291
10.3.9 Reserved member names...................................................................................................... 292
10.3.9.1 Member names reserved for properties.......................................................................... 292
10.3.9.2 Member names reserved for events................................................................................ 293
10.3.9.3 Member names reserved for indexers............................................................................ 293
10.3.9.4 Member names reserved for destructors......................................................................... 293
10.4 Constants.................................................................................................................................... 293
10.5 Fields.......................................................................................................................................... 295
10.5.1 Static and instance fields...................................................................................................... 296
10.5.2 Readonly fields.................................................................................................................... 297
10.5.2.1 Using static readonly fields for constants....................................................................... 297
10.5.2.2 Versioning of constants and static readonly fields......................................................... 298
10.5.3 Volatile fields....................................................................................................................... 298
10.5.4 Field initialization................................................................................................................. 299
10.5.5 Variable initializers............................................................................................................... 300
10.5.5.1 Static field initialization.................................................................................................. 301
10.5.5.2 Instance field initialization............................................................................................. 302
10.6 Methods...................................................................................................................................... 302
10.6.1 Method parameters............................................................................................................... 304
10.6.1.1 Value parameters........................................................................................................... 306
10.6.1.2 Reference parameters..................................................................................................... 306
10.6.1.3 Output parameters.......................................................................................................... 307
10.6.1.4 Parameter arrays............................................................................................................. 308
10.6.2 Static and instance methods.................................................................................................. 310
10.6.3 Virtual methods.................................................................................................................... 310
10.6.4 Override methods................................................................................................................. 312
10.6.5 Sealed methods.................................................................................................................... 314
10.6.6 Abstract methods.................................................................................................................. 315
10.6.7 External methods.................................................................................................................. 316
10.6.8 Partial methods..................................................................................................................... 317
10.6.9 Extension methods............................................................................................................... 317
10.6.10 Method body...................................................................................................................... 318
10.6.11 Method overloading........................................................................................................... 318
10.7 Properties.................................................................................................................................... 318
10.7.1 Static and instance properties............................................................................................... 320
10.7.2 Accessors............................................................................................................................. 320
10.7.3 Automatically implemented properties................................................................................. 325
10.7.4 Accessibility......................................................................................................................... 325
10.7.5 Virtual, sealed, override, and abstract accessors................................................................... 327
10.8 Events......................................................................................................................................... 328
10.8.1 Field-like events................................................................................................................... 330
10.8.2 Event accessors.................................................................................................................... 332
10.8.3 Static and instance events..................................................................................................... 333
10.8.4 Virtual, sealed, override, and abstract accessors................................................................... 333
10.9 Indexers...................................................................................................................................... 333
10.9.1 Indexer overloading............................................................................................................. 337
10.10 Operators.................................................................................................................................. 337
10.10.1 Unary operators.................................................................................................................. 339
10.10.2 Binary operators................................................................................................................. 339
10.10.3 Conversion operators......................................................................................................... 340
10.11 Instance constructors................................................................................................................ 342
10.11.1 Constructor initializers........................................................................................................ 343
10.11.2 Instance variable initializers............................................................................................... 344
10.11.3 Constructor execution........................................................................................................ 344
10.11.4 Default constructors........................................................................................................... 346
10.11.5 Private constructors............................................................................................................ 346
10.11.6 Optional instance constructor parameters........................................................................... 347
10.12 Static constructors..................................................................................................................... 347
10.13 Destructors................................................................................................................................ 349
10.14 Iterators..................................................................................................................................... 351
10.14.1 Enumerator interfaces........................................................................................................ 351
10.14.2 Enumerable interfaces........................................................................................................ 351
10.14.3 Yield type........................................................................................................................... 351
10.14.4 Enumerator objects............................................................................................................. 351
10.14.4.1 The MoveNext method................................................................................................ 352
10.14.4.2 The Current property.................................................................................................... 353
10.14.4.3 The Dispose method.................................................................................................... 353
10.14.5 Enumerable objects............................................................................................................ 353
10.14.5.1 The GetEnumerator method......................................................................................... 354
10.14.6 Implementation example.................................................................................................... 354
11. Structs............................................................................................................................................. 361
11.1 Struct declarations....................................................................................................................... 361
11.1.1 Struct modifiers.................................................................................................................... 361
11.1.2 Partial modifier..................................................................................................................... 362
11.1.3 Struct interfaces.................................................................................................................... 362
11.1.4 Struct body........................................................................................................................... 362
11.2 Struct members........................................................................................................................... 362
11.3 Class and struct differences........................................................................................................ 362
11.3.1 Value semantics................................................................................................................... 363
11.3.2 Inheritance........................................................................................................................... 364
11.3.3 Assignment........................................................................................................................... 364
11.3.4 Default values...................................................................................................................... 364
11.3.5 Boxing and unboxing........................................................................................................... 365
11.3.6 Meaning of this.................................................................................................................... 366
11.3.7 Field initializers.................................................................................................................... 366
11.3.8 Constructors......................................................................................................................... 367
11.3.9 Destructors........................................................................................................................... 368
11.3.10 Static constructors.............................................................................................................. 368
11.4 Struct examples........................................................................................................................... 368
11.4.1 Database integer type........................................................................................................... 368
11.4.2 Database boolean type......................................................................................................... 370
12. Arrays............................................................................................................................................. 373
12.1 Array types................................................................................................................................. 373
12.1.1 The System.Array type......................................................................................................... 374
12.1.2 Arrays and the generic IList interface................................................................................... 374
12.2 Array creation............................................................................................................................. 374
12.3 Array element access.................................................................................................................. 375
12.4 Array members........................................................................................................................... 375
12.5 Array covariance........................................................................................................................ 375
12.6 Array initializers......................................................................................................................... 375
13. Interfaces........................................................................................................................................ 379
13.1 Interface declarations.................................................................................................................. 379
13.1.1 Interface modifiers............................................................................................................... 379
13.1.2 Partial modifier..................................................................................................................... 379
13.1.3 Variant type parameter lists.................................................................................................. 380
13.1.3.1 Variance safety.............................................................................................................. 380
13.1.3.2 Variance conversion...................................................................................................... 381
13.1.4 Base interfaces..................................................................................................................... 381
13.1.5 Interface body...................................................................................................................... 382
13.2 Interface members...................................................................................................................... 382
13.2.1 Interface methods................................................................................................................. 383
13.2.2 Interface properties.............................................................................................................. 383
13.2.3 Interface events.................................................................................................................... 384
13.2.4 Interface indexers................................................................................................................. 384
13.2.5 Interface member access...................................................................................................... 384
13.3 Fully qualified interface member names..................................................................................... 386
13.4 Interface implementations........................................................................................................... 386
13.4.1 Explicit interface member implementations.......................................................................... 387
13.4.2 Uniqueness of implemented interfaces................................................................................. 389
13.4.3 Implementation of generic methods..................................................................................... 390
13.4.4 Interface mapping................................................................................................................ 391
13.4.5 Interface implementation inheritance................................................................................... 394
13.4.6 Interface re-implementation................................................................................................. 395
13.4.7 Abstract classes and interfaces............................................................................................. 396
14. Enums.............................................................................................................................................. 399
14.1 Enum declarations...................................................................................................................... 399
14.2 Enum modifiers.......................................................................................................................... 399
14.3 Enum members........................................................................................................................... 400
14.4 The System.Enum type............................................................................................................... 402
14.5 Enum values and operations....................................................................................................... 402
15. Delegates......................................................................................................................................... 403
15.1 Delegate declarations.................................................................................................................. 403
15.2 Delegate compatibility................................................................................................................ 405
15.3 Delegate instantiation.................................................................................................................. 405
15.4 Delegate invocation.................................................................................................................... 406
16. Exceptions....................................................................................................................................... 409
16.1 Causes of exceptions.................................................................................................................. 409
16.2 The System.Exception class........................................................................................................ 409
16.3 How exceptions are handled....................................................................................................... 409
16.4 Common Exception Classes........................................................................................................ 410
17. Attributes........................................................................................................................................ 411
17.1 Attribute classes.......................................................................................................................... 411
17.1.1 Attribute usage..................................................................................................................... 411
17.1.2 Positional and named parameters......................................................................................... 412
17.1.3 Attribute parameter types..................................................................................................... 413
17.2 Attribute specification................................................................................................................. 413
17.3 Attribute instances...................................................................................................................... 418
17.3.1 Compilation of an attribute................................................................................................... 418
17.3.2 Run-time retrieval of an attribute instance............................................................................ 419
17.4 Reserved attributes...................................................................................................................... 419
17.4.1 The AttributeUsage attribute................................................................................................. 419
17.4.2 The Conditional attribute...................................................................................................... 420
17.4.2.1 Conditional methods...................................................................................................... 420
17.4.2.2 Conditional attribute classes........................................................................................... 422
17.4.3 The Obsolete attribute.......................................................................................................... 423
17.5 Attributes for Interoperation....................................................................................................... 424
17.5.1 Interoperation with COM and Win32 components............................................................... 424
17.5.2 Interoperation with other.NET languages............................................................................. 425
17.5.2.1 The IndexerName attribute............................................................................................. 425
18. Unsafe code..................................................................................................................................... 427
18.1 Unsafe contexts.......................................................................................................................... 427
18.2 Pointer types............................................................................................................................... 429
18.3 Fixed and moveable variables..................................................................................................... 432
18.4 Pointer conversions..................................................................................................................... 432
18.4.1 Pointer arrays....................................................................................................................... 433
18.5 Pointers in expressions................................................................................................................ 434
18.5.1 Pointer indirection................................................................................................................ 435
18.5.2 Pointer member access......................................................................................................... 435
18.5.3 Pointer element access.......................................................................................................... 436
18.5.4 The address-of operator....................................................................................................... 436
18.5.5 Pointer increment and decrement......................................................................................... 437
18.5.6 Pointer arithmetic................................................................................................................. 437
18.5.7 Pointer comparison............................................................................................................... 438
18.5.8 The sizeof operator.............................................................................................................. 439
18.6 The fixed statement.................................................................................................................... 439
18.7 Fixed size buffers....................................................................................................................... 443
18.7.1 Fixed size buffer declarations.............................................................................................. 443
18.7.2 Fixed size buffers in expressions......................................................................................... 444
18.7.3 Definite assignment checking............................................................................................... 445
18.8 Stack allocation........................................................................................................................... 445
18.9 Dynamic memory allocation....................................................................................................... 446
A. Documentation comments................................................................................................................ 449
A.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................. 449
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