II. Background

II.A Education in the Circumpolar North

To understand the Arctic contemporary educational problems is the main goal of this part.

Education is an essantial component of sustainable development. Howeer, for the Arctic there is a history of education systems that tried to force central school models on local people, including different degrees of suppressions of local language. This has been improved today to various degrees in the Arctic States. Howeer, lack of skilled teachers with local roots is acircumpolar challenge. Arctic higher educational institutions also face many challenges when attemping to be innovative and competetive due to to their small size and geographic isolation (Kullerud 2009).

Education should be an important indicator for human development in the circumpolar region. Each of the circumpolar states has a vested interest in education. There are certain common characteristics in northern education: it is regionalized, it involves mostly small populations in remote communities and few urban centers, cultural diversity and the erosion of small languages are the norm, and the level of educational investment varies as do the costs. The forces of globalization, for example satellite television and the internet, are bringing the world to northern students, forever changing what we know as northern values and skills.

Some aspects of what students learn during their primary and secondary school years, and even beyond to post-secondary education, is on the surface similar in all parts of the circumpolar North. In Narsaq, Greenland, students will acquire some of the same knowledge as those in Norilsk, Russia, even if there will be some obvious language and culture differences. Comparisons show similar systems of organization, school administration, and textbook subject matter, though the size of classes and economics of education vary a great deal. This holds true when comparing a number of schools in each of the larger urban communities. The graduates from these different schools will follow goals and objectives set within the social and historical context of where they live, as well as the economic and cultural specifics of their times (Arctic Human Development Report 2004).

An emerging trend for circumpolar education is its increasing accessibility. Accessibility is about students being able to take classes and fulfill their potential, that is, it concerns their possibilities for attending school, both physically and culturally. The economics of education, if we were to employ a sustainable development paradigm, would show that educational systems are often supported through public funds, although there are private schools that charge fees. Accessibility to post-secondary education varies greatly in the circumpolar North. In primary and secondary school, students enjoy a high degree of accessibility to physical structures, although cultural and linguistic barriers persist in some areas. In the past, some students were separated from their families to attend school, and for higher education this is still sometimes the case. Distance and institutional capacity were barriers to centralized education. Now there are schools in most communities, students can be “home schooled” in remote and rural locations, and increased connectivity allows students to take courses on the internet, for example the Bachelor of Circumpolar Studies offered by the University of the Arctic.

Even though this increased accessibility of education is occurring in some places, it is not unique to the North. Rather, it is a reflection of changes that have occurred in urbanized areas around the world, where population growth, increased living standards, modernity, and tech- nology have been transforming schools for the past fifty years.

Circumpolar education research would benefit from comparative measurements for a range of factors: recruitment and retention, graduation rates, student-teacher ratios, per capita funding, literacy rates, employment rates, and so on. Such research must include an understanding of the fact that north- ern education includes both formal and traditional systems, so that one is not given promi- nence at the expense of the other (Arctic Human Development Report 2004).

There are existing post-secondary institutions in the Arctic that either by campus or program location and/or through adapted delivery systems try to improve accessibility. The model of the University of Arctic allows for a dynamic development of shared education systems through mutual cooperation. This network can be a very efficient tool to for delivering a relevent curriculum for a changing North (Kullerud 2009). The University of the Arctic (UArctic), an umbrella organization of more than 100 universities and colleges in the circumpolar North, has improved accessibility to programs through exchange opportunities and distant delivery of courses. As of 2008 UArctic is moving into a next stage by revising its strategic plan focusing on critical future challenges in the North for the members to solve through joint efforts. Its member insti- tutions have committed to join the UArctic charter and the UArctic value system, which also include accessibility increase (Arctic Social Indicators 2010, 87).

The University of the Arctic (UArctic) started in 2001 as a virtual university with the mission to “Empower the residents of the Circumpolar North, by building human capital through higher education”. The realities of the Arctic region with its vast distances, great cultural diversity, and small communities and institutions called for a common effort by the involved nations and universities. UArctic is a cooperative network of universities, colleges, and other organizations committed to higher education and research in the North. UArctic has developed innovative courses offered in the classroom and in the field or delivered online, including north2north student exchange programs (The official website of the University of Arctic).

The north2north student exchange program provides opportunities for students to experience different northern regions firsthand, and to share experiences face-to-face by allowing students to study at other UArctic institutions. The program operates in close collaboration with the faculty exchange program to build mutual cooperation that can sustain and support student exchange (The official website of the Thematic Network on Distance Education and E-learning).

Comparisons, however, have to take some major differences across the North into account also. For example, comparison of systems of post-secondary education would have to take into account the fact that Canada has no independent universities in the North unlike other Arctic Council member countries. Comparisons in educational systems must also take into account infrastructure. In Alaska, for example, there are communities which are accessible only by air, and of those connected by road, some are only connected by winter road for four months of the year.

From having previously been a part of colonial oppression, education in formal schools systems is being redefined in a couple of areas with a recognition of indigenous cultures and languages. This includes creating indigenous curricula, using, in some cases, traditional indigenous knowledge (Arctic Human Development Report 2004).

So, education is a major factor for sustainable development in the circumpolar region. Regionalization, small populations in remote communities and few urban centers, cultural diversity and the erosion of small languages are certain common characteristics in northern education. The level of educational investment and costs vary significantly across the region. Such factors as recruitment and retention, graduation rates, student-teacher ratios, per capita funding, literacy rates, employment rates are important for circumpolar education research. The University of the Arctic creates is the network of institutions referring to higher education and research in the Circumpolar North.

II.B Distance Education

Distance education is a broad discipline with a great number of technical tools. Here we will analise those instrument which are alredy impleneting or can implement in the Arctic regoins of the United States and Russia or in Russian and American joint educational aad academic projects.

Generally online learning is a form of distance learning, and distance learning is just that - learning at a distance - education unbound from the physical site of a classroom. The terms distance learning, distance education, virtual education, and online education are often used interchangeably. "Distance" refers to the geographic separation between teachers and students, as well as the time gap that can separate lessons taught and lessons learned. Students can attend a college regardless of geography with the ease and control of technology (Marshall 2010).

Distance learning is not a new phenomenon - correspondence courses have been around for centuries and it is common today for people to self-educate themselves via CD-ROM, DVD, podcasts, and other technological tools - but the evolution of the Internet ushered in a new era of distance learning: widespread online higher education. Online education has its roots in the business world, where companies were quick to utilize computers and multimedia; as the Internet began to come into its own, businesses found it an ideal vessel for employee training programs.

Online education programs are unique creatures, customized to content and stylized by instructors, but are commonly categorized into a few types: asynchronous and synchronous. Most online courses are asynchronous. Asynchronous learning is the method in which the teaching occurs at one time and the learning occurs at another. Material is posted to web pages, delivered via email, or packaged in software, and can consist of reading assignments, video recordings, audio clips, or other lesson tools. Students then individually access and navigate this material, without necessarily needing to coordinate with other students in the course. Synchronous learning is the method in which teaching and learning happen at a synchronized time. Faculty and students share a common schedule and meet together via audio or video conferencing, web-based lectures, virtual classrooms, live chats, and the like. This method is becoming increasingly utilized as online education expands its reach (Marshall 2010).

Online learning takes place within a variety of educational learning environments: nonprofit traditional distance learning universities, traditional nonprofit universities, military online universities, for-profit universities, for-profit e-learning organizations, corporate online universities and online learning digital content resources and open sources.

Traditional distance learning schools have ventured into the online environment and brought with them the values and educational philosophies of their traditional distance environment (The United Kingdom's Open University, Canada Athabasca University and Fielding Graduate University). Large traditional public universities have the highest number of online degree and certificate programs as well as cources across a wide range of disciplines.

There are examples of traditional universities developing entirely new entities for their online programs, such as the formation of Cardean University and Ellis College of New York Insitute of Technology. Some of the elite universities, including Columbia and Northwestern, have formed for-profit business by partnering with online learning companies to offer online cources (Rudestam 2010, 8).

The Department of Defence has two online universities to provide continuing education and professional training as well as degree programs primarily to military personnel and civilian personnel. Other universities, such as Park University, collaborate with the military online programs.

The University of Phoenix is the largest and most financially successful for-profit university that has both campus-based and online programs. University of Phoenix Online offers BA and MA programs as well as corporate certificate programs. Jones International, founded in 1995, is an exclusively online university with students located in 57 countries. Other for-profit schools that offer graduate degrees online include Strayer University Online, DeVry's Keller School of Management, Capella University, Argosy University and Walden University.

Beginning in 1998, Kaplan Learning Systems, in conjunction with the Washington Post, developed a for-profit e-learning organization Kaplan University and Kaplan College Online offering degrees and certificates. It partners with the University of Alabama to provide library services. Another large for-profit company, Sylvan Learning Systems, has consolidated some of the important players in the online market by acquiring Walden University, National Technology University, and Canter, a program for teacher's professional development.

Many major corporations have developed corporate universities with online components. It is common practice for the corporate universities to work collaborately with for-profit organozations. Examples of corporate universities include Motorola University, Daimler Chrysler University Online, McDonald's Hamburger University, EMC University, General Motors University, NCR University, Shell Open University, and Vanguard University.

A sample of online organizations and Web sites that provide support for research, content, and collaboration for online learning indicates there is a wealth of support and rapid expansion of Web-based resources. A well-developed effort to support the online learning environment is the Sloane Foundation's Asynchronous Learning Network, which has promoted asynchronous learning since 1994, holds an annual conference, and has a Web site containing research and educational resources. Other nonprofit online learning ventures are IMS Global Learning Consortium and Online University Consortium. Blogs such as e-learningpundit, wikis, and virtual reality sites provide a new generation of e-learning possibilities.

The research in open resources, freely accessible, openly licensed documents and media, has a good potential. For example, the University of Colorado Boulder conducts research on both the design and use of PhET interactive simulations to better understand: which characteristics make these tools effective for learning and why; how students engage and interact with these tools to learn, and what influences this process; when, how, and why these tools are effective in a variety of learning environments.

University's studies have shown that PhET sims are more effective for conceptual understanding; however, there are many goals of hands-on labs that simulations do not address. For example, specific skills relating to the functioning of equipment. Depending on the goals of a laboratory, it may be more effective to use just sims or a combination of sims and real equipment.

PhET sims are not aimed at entatainment. Most students do not have the necessary drive to spend time playing with a science simulation (they 're fun, but not that fun) on their own time unless there is a direct motivation such as their grade. This is one of the reasons we are pursuing the project of how to best integrate sims into homework.

There are a lot of options to use PhET sims in courses. It have found that PahET sims to be very effective in lecture, in class activities, lab and homework. They are designed with minimal text so that they can easily be integrated into every aspect of a course.

Another open resourse is Coursera. It offers open online courses from the world's top universities, featuring video lectures, assignments, tests, and exams. Classes offered through this system are designed to help students to master the material. When a student takes one of classes, he or she will watch lectures taught by world-class professors, learn at his own pace, test his knowledge, and reinforce concepts through interactive exercises. When a student joins one of classes, he or she will also join a global community of thousands of students learning.

Coursera courses are designed based on sound pedagogical foundations, to help students master new concepts quickly and effectively. Key ideas include mastery learning, to make sure that students have multiple attempts to demonstrate new knowledge; using interactivity, to ensure student engagement and to assist long-term retention; and providing frequent feedback, so that students can monitor their own progress, and know when they have really mastered the material. Coursera offers courses in a wide range of topics, spanning the Humanities, Medicine, Biology, Social Sciences, Mathematics, Business, Computer Science, and many others (The official website of Coursera).

Along with the enormous growth and competition in online educational ventures, we have already withessed the demise and cosolidation of some online learning schools. Future development will continue to be influenced by an institution's or organization's mission, commotment of leadership, desire to improve access, administration and faculty beliefs that online education is equal to or better than traditional education as well as an impetus toward creativity and collaboration (ne cources (Rudestam 2010, 10-11).

There are a number of reasons students pursue an online education. Choice is one: without geographic limitations or relocation issues, students can consider schools that otherwise may not have been an option. The convenience and comfort of managing online course work at home is not just appealing but often necessary, especially for busy professionals and parents without the time to commute to a college campus. Online programs offer multiple course sessions and make fewer scheduling demands than traditional universities; students have greater flexibility to customize coursework and study time according to their own specifications. Online learning can also be cost-effective because it eliminates room, board, and other fees built into campus learning (Marshall 2010).

The US Department of Education research in online education has found encouraging results. Students in online conditions performed modestly better, on average, than those learning the same material through traditional face-to-face instruction. Learning outcomes for students who engaged in online learning exceeded those of students receiving face-to-face instruction (Evidence-Based Practices in Online Learning 2009).

The underlying practice of Web 2.0 tools is that of harnessing collective intelligence. As users add new content and new sites, they are connected through hyperlinking so that other users discover the content and link to it, thus the Web grows organically as a reflexion of the collective activity of the users. There are the most popular tools: blogs, wikis, podcasting, e-portfolios, social networking, and Second Life.

A blog (shot for Web log) is a type of Web page that is simple to create and to disseminate and that is used as a form of online journal. Already, there are millions of users (bloggers). Some blogs take the form of regular diary entries that are posted in reverse chronological order (newest at the top) and deal with the enthusiasm of the users who will combine personal opinions with links to other related Web sites, blogs, and other online articles. Due to its simplicity of use and their flexibility, blogs have become a very fast-growing feature of educational establishments, corporate business, and the public sector.

Blogging offers opportunities to extend discussion beyond the classroom, or it can add value to the online community in blended and distance learning courses. The immediacy of blogging encourages a fresh approach to sharing information (Mason 2010 - more)

New opportunities and challenges in web based education and learning are open with the help of Web 2.0 and now Web 3.0. Four characteristics of Web 3.0 can be introduced: intelligence, personalization, interoperability and virtualization. Experts believe that one of the most promising features of Web 3.0 will be Web with intelligence, i.e., an intelligent web. For example, documents in different languages can be intelligently translated into other languages in Web3.0 era. Another characteristic of Web 3.0 era is personalisation. Semantic Web would be the core technology for Personalisation in Web 3.0. In the context of Web 3.0, the terms interoperability, collaboration and reusability are basically interrelated. An application based on Web 3.0 would be able to run on many types of Computers, Microwave devices, Hand-held devices, Mobiles, TVs, Automobiles and many others. Web 3.0 would be a web with high speed internet bandwidths and High end 3D Graphics, which can better be utilised for virtualisation. The trend for future web refers to the creation of virtual 3-Dimensional environments. An example of the most popular 3-D web application of Web 3.0 is Second Life.

The learning in Web 2.0 emphasizes the active participation of internet users and interaction among social communities, through social network tools or such social software as blog, wiki, social book marking and social networking. The tools & services of Web 3.0 technologies would foster a more open approach to learning. Web 3.0 has been proposed as a possible future web consisting of the integration of high-powered graphics (Scalable Vector Graphics or SVG) and semantic data. There have also been discussions around 3-D social networking systems and immersive 3-D internet environments that will take the best of virtual worlds (such as Second Life) and gaming environments and merge them with the Web.

Web 3.0 offers many tools and services for different kind of web applications on Internet including Learning with 3D-Wikis / Virtual 3D Encyclopedia, Learning with 3D Virtual worlds & Avatars, Intelligent Search Engines, Online 3-D Virtual Labs / Educational labs / Simulations or 3D Web (Rajiv 2011).

The main technological characteristic of distance education is a Learning Management System (LMS) or a Course Management System (CMS). It is software used for delivering, tracking and managing training/education. LMSs range from systems for managing training/educational records to software for distributing courses over the Internet and offering features for online collaboration (Mahnegar 2012). Blackboard is one of the leading commercial LMS software packages used by North American and European universities. Educators have other opportunities as well. Moodle is a Course Management System (CMS), also known as a Learning Management System (LMS) or a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE). It is a free web application that educators can use to create effective online learning sites (The website of Moodle). Many institutions, in particular, in Russia are developing their own LMS, sometimes using open source approaches.

Blackboard has a set of effective educational tools: e-mail sending, assignment submitting, quizzes, a discussion board and blogging. wikis The discussion board is a communication tool that can be used in a classroom setting. It is similar to chat, but is designed for asynchronous use, meaning students do not have to be available at the same time to have a conversation. The Discussion Board consists of three components: forums, threads and messages.

These are the main topics in the Discussion Board. Forum topics are pretty general in nature; e.g., Sled dog racing. Sled dog racing as a topic is very general, and there are a number of possible topics within this that would be more specific. Threads are the specific topics within the forums and the main discussion area. Possible threads for the forum "Sled dog racing" might include 1) the different types of racing sleds, 2) the different types of dogs, 3) sled dog nutrition, and 4) race ethics. Messages (also called posts) are the replies posted in response to threads and other messages. The instructor creates the forums or threads, and then asks students to post their responses to those forums/threads.

Some of eLearning courses include a blogging component. Blog is short for 'web log,' which is a dynamic web-site that allows you to update the public with your thoughts via written word or graphics. Think of it like a public diary, or an open-ended e-mail that many can view. You can choose to allow comments on your blog to make it interactive. It is very similar to the Discussion Board (The official website of University of Alaska Fairbanks Blackboard).

The latest and greatest technology from Blackboard, including Blackboard Learn™, Release 9.1, Blackboard Collaborate™, Blackboard Mobile™, and Blackboard Connect™, powers CourseSites. It is a open source, hosted online course creation and facilitation service that empowers individual K–12 teachers, college and university instructors and community educators to add a web–based component to their courses, or even host an entire course on the Internet. As a free interactive elearning platform, it allows educators post and update course material, interact with students, promote collaboration, as well as assess and improve performance –– anytime, anywhere, 24/7. It has all the online teaching tools (The website of CourseSites by Blackboard).

Software is extremly important for distance education. Cloud computing is becoming an adoptable technology for many of the organizations with its dynamic scalability and usage of virtualized resources as a service through the Internet. It will likely have a significant impact on the educational environment in the future. Cloud computing is an excellent alternative for educational institutions which are especially under budget shortage in order to operate their information systems effectively without spending any more capital for the computers and network devices. Universities take advantage of available cloud-based applications offered by service providers and enable their own users/students to perform business and academic tasks. In the educational arena, the cloud computing infrastructure can provide significant impact, especially in the universities.

There is another element in the educational informative technology. According to Rockinson-Szapkiw (2013, 181), the interactivity of e-textbooks possibly will afford students the opportunity to foster cognitive strategies that in turn enable increased reading comprehension. Moreover, although printed textbooks have met the needs of learners past, recent generations of learners might prefer an electronic option.

The limitations of print textbooks extend to the amount of information contained within one text. There is a physical limit to the amount of information that a printed text can contain; however, e-textbooks transcend these boundaries by containing multiple volumes, workbooks, reference books, and various multimedia files through which learners can access literally at their fingertips. Thus, learning is not only made convenient but also the amount of relevant and valuable information accessible to learners is extended. Following R. E. Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning, multimodal instruction enables learners to more effectively transfer learning. Multimedia instruction can include the delivery media, presentation mode, or sensory modalities. Given the multimedia aspects of e-textbooks, the electronic format may provide better opportunities for understanding.

Rockinson-Szapkiw’s (2013, 186-187) study supports the adoption of e-textbooks in collegiate classrooms as the findings indicate that students using e-textbooks were more likely to use self-regulated learning strategies than students who were using the traditional textbook. Research has indicated that reading is an active cognitive process. Student interactivity may be limited by conventional print texts.

As for the research in distance education, a standard set of questions for any educational innovation constantly is asked: Is it as good as traditional education? What does it cost? What kind of students benefits? What factors influence instructional effectiveness? Do instructors have to teach differently? (Threlkeld 1994, 41)

The research and evaluation results important to the practitioner. Moore (1989) enumerates three reasons why research should be conducted and questions of effectiveness asked concerning distance education: distance education uses technologies that are unfamiliar as the primary media of communication for teaching to most teachers and administrators; distance education requires teachers to specialize in the various functions of teaching, especially those of counsellor, content expert, facilitator of interaction, course designer, and learner; distance education requires planning, development, production and distribution on a larger scale than is familiar to most teachersand administrators, and requires major intervention by policy makers at national and state levels (Moore 1990, 2).

So, it is important to conclude that asynchronous and synchronous are two types of distance education. A variety of educational learning environments creates online learning - from nonprofit traditional distance learning universities to open educational sources. Web 2.0 and Web 3.0 have opened new opportunities and challenges in web based education and learning. A Learning Management System (LMS) is the main technological characteristic of distance education. In North American universities, Blackboard is one of the leading commercial LMS software packages. Many Russian institutions are developing their own LMS. Self-regulated learning strategies are more likely to be applied by students using e-textbooks than by students with traditional textbooks. The research in distance education usually responses to questions which are asked for an educational innovation.

II.C Distance Higher Education in the Circumpolar North

Despite the fact that the North is a vast area with huge differences and contrasts, he the main aim of this part is to find similarities to analyze the Circumpolar North distance education as a whole.

The practice of Arctic countries confirms the effectiveness of online or distance education. Taking into account the Arctic Social Indicators (2010, 76), Statistics Iceland has examined the drop-out rate of students in tertiary education by comparing the Statistics Iceland Student Register with the Register of Examinations. The results show that from autumn 2002 to autumn 2003 a total of 2,037 students dropped out of school or took a temporary leave from their studies, resulting in a drop-out rate of 14.7%. The rate was loweramong students in day courses and distance learning and higher among students in evening courses. In addition, the drop-out rate was lower among students in full-time study and higher among students in part-time study. So, distance learning in Iceland is more effective than evening courses and, probably, than part-time study.

A significant development in northern higher education is the increased interest in the use of information and communication technology and open learning sourses and networks. This is reflected in the University of the Arctic and the Northern Research Forum. Their efforts to raise awareness of natural and cultural circumstance of the Arctic and promoting dialogue among members of the research community and a wide range of other stakeholders in the Arctic have been applauded by the Arctic education ministers (Arctic Human Development Report 2004).

UArctic Thematic Network on Distance Education and E-learning was started in 2008 with funding received from the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research. University of Tromsø, Department of Education, is the lead and the host institution in the network, with partners from Nordic countries, and along with from Russia, and Canada. The aim of the Thematic Network is to exchange knowledge and research about E-learning, and a discussion of methodology of the field. It will focuses on the learning processes, pedagogy, and appropriate information technologies necessary to deliver content to and support distant learners.

The Thematic Network main activities can be described as share experience from E-learning with members of the Network, identify the relevant challenges and problems in the field of E-learning in the Arctic countries, facilitate student and teacher exchange, facilitate collaborative research projects, conferences, and publications in the area of E-learning, send applications for funding the network and activities within the network education (The official website of the Thematic Network on Distance Education and E-learning).

In 2009 the Thematic Network arranged a conference in Murmansk in the Russian Federation on flexible learning, together with Murmansk State Pedagogical University (Levites 2009). On January 27-28, 2010 the UArctic Thematic Network on Distance Education and E-learning met at the University of Tromsø as part of the Arctic Frontiers conference, Part IV: Frontiers in E-learning of the High North. The aim of the e-learning part of the conference was to exchange knowledge and research about e-learning and to host a discussion of the methodology of the field. It was centred on the learning processes, pedagogy, and appropriate information technologies necessary to deliver content to and support distant learners. The sessions had their main focus on education in the Arctic communities and regions. Particular emphasis was placed on technology-enhanced learning, and the pedagogic and creative use of learning management systems (LMS) were discussed, together with issues related to teacher training and digital resources from the Arctic region. Five of the presentations were from Russia, three from Canada, one from Denmark, and nine from Norway (Thorvaldsen 2011). In 2012 the Thematic Network activities aimed to publish workshop proceedings, organize conference in Tromsø on June 2-3, 2012, and start developing a north2north student project within teacher (The official website of the Thematic Network on Distance Education and E-learning).

With regards to native peoples and communities in North America one can notice a remarkable shift: some years ago, scienists published Web pages about native peoples, languages, and cultures. Nowadays native people publish Web pages about themselves, that is, they write about their own culture and (partly) in their own language.

So far, this shift has not yet taken place in the Web pages' corpus dealing with Siberean indigenous affairs. Materials on indigenous peoples living in the Russian Federation is mostly related to scientific work, especially to linguistic and sociolinguistic issues. This can be illustrated by three examples: Selkun, Itelmen and Koryak (posmotret) Web pages.

Evidently, a great demand of indigenous peoples is an education one. Internet offers an opportunity to pass the respective mother tongue and native knowledge to the younger generation. Variuos Web pages contain material for educational purposes or about educational issues (Habeck 1998, 276-277, 279).

In the Nordic countries life-long learning offered by the higher education institutions has also been of importance in the region. Distance education has been of importance for people living in the rural areas, and the number of distance students has been rising rapidly, increasing opportunities for staying in the area and influencing its development. The number of companies working with high technology has increased, as well as the number of skilled people. The university studies that are and have been offered are of great importance for the survival of the region (AHDR 2004, 181).

Access to higher education has increased in the Arctic over the past 30 years, in particularly, with increased use of distance education. This access is still very uneven, however, and in many parts of the Arctic there are few or no opportunities for post-secondary distance education within the region (e.g. in parts of Canada, Siberia, and the Russian Far East).

PhET simulations from open educational resourses The Greenhouse Effect and Glaciers can be widely used in the Arctic regions in courses Arctic Governance and Sustainable Developmen t (see in Agr. D.).

To sum up, the distance education in the Arctic is effective. The University of the Arctic and the Northern Research Forum are increasing the interest in the use of information and communication technology and open learning resourses and networks. In 2008 the UArctic Thematic Network on Distance Education and E-learning began to function. Internet and distance education create new opportunity for indegenous peoples to study native language and knowledge.

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