Category of number 3 страница

Table

Function

Style Intellectual-communicative Voluntary Emotive Contact-creating Aesthetic

Oratorical + + + + +

Colloquial + + + + -

Poetic + - + - +

Publicistic and Newspaper + + + - -

Official + + - - -

Scientific + - - - -

Having in mind the fact that FS is a historical category Arnold doubts that in the contemporary English language exists a separate poetic style. As it is clearly seen from the table oratorical and scientific styles are opposite to each other the first having all functions of language, the second – only one.

There are no strict boundaries separating one FS from another. The oratorical style has much in common with a publicistic one. The publisictic newspaper style is close to the colloquial style. But if we consider this problem it will be evident that we are dealing with the combination of different FS in the speech of a given individual because each FS is characterized by certain parameters concerning vocabulary and syntax.

[S] 3.5. Functional styles of language

The Belles-Lettres Style

According to I.R. Galperin, this is a generic term for three substyles: the language of poetry; emotive prose (the language of fiction); the language of the drama. Each of these substyles has certain common features, and each of them enjoys some individuality. The common features of the substyles are the following:

1. The aesthetico-cognitive function (a function which aims at the cognitive process, which secures the gradual unfolding of the idea to the reader and at the same time calls forth a feeling of pleasure and satisfaction which a reader experiences because he is able to penetrate into the author's idea and to form his own conclusions).

2. Definite linguistic features:

• Genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices.

• The use of words in different meanings, greatly influenced by the lexical environment.

• A vocabulary which will reflect to a certain degree the author's personal evaluation of things or phenomena.

• A peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax.

• The introduction of the typical features of colloquial language to a full degree (drama), to a lesser degree (in prose), to a slight degree (poetry).

The belles-lettres style is individual in essence. This is one of its most distinctive properties.

The language of poetry is characterized by its orderly form, which is based mainly on the rhythmic and phonetic arrangement of the utterances. The rhythmic aspect calls forth syntactic and semantic peculiarities. There are certain restrictions which result in brevity of expression, epigram-like utterances and fresh, unexpected imagery. Syntactically this brevity is shown in elliptical sentences, in detached constructions, in inversion, etc.

Emotive prose shares the same common features, but these features are correlated differently than in poetry. The imagery is not so rich as in poetry; the percentage of words with contextual meaning is not so high. Emotive prose features the combination of the literary variant of the language, both in words and in syntax, with the colloquial variant. But the colloquial language in the belles-lettres style is not a simple reproduction of the natural speech, it has undergone changes introduced by the writer and has been made "literature-like". In emotive prose there are always two forms of communication present - monologue (the writer's speech) and dialogue (the speech of the characters). Emotive prose allows the use of elements from other styles as well. But all these styles undergo a kind of transformation under the influence of emotive prose. Passages written in other styles may be viewed only as interpolations and not as constituents of the style.

Language of the drama is entirely dialogue. The author's speech is almost entirely excluded except for the playwright's remarks and stage directions. But the language of the characters is not the exact reproduction of the norms of colloquial language. Any variety of the belles-lettres style will use the norms of the literary language of the given period. The language of plays is always stylized, it strives to retain the modus of literary English.

[S] 3.6. Functional styles of language

Publicistic Style

The publicistic style of language became a separate style in the middle of the 18th century. Unlike other styles, it has two spoken varieties, namely the oratorical substyle and the radio and TV commentary. The other two substyles are the essay (moral, philosophical, literary) and journalistic articles (political, social, economic). The general aim of publicistic style is to influence the public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the expressed point of view.

Publicistic style is characterized by coherent and logical syntactical structure, with an expanded system of connectives and careful paragraphing. Its emotional appeal is achieved by the use of words with the emotive meaning but the stylistic devices are not fresh or genuine. The individual element is not very evident. Publicistic style is also characterized by the brevity of expression, sometimes it becomes a leading feature.

The oratorical style is the oral subdivision of the publicistic style. Direct contact with the listeners permits a combination of the syntactical, lexical and phonetic peculiarities of both the written and spoken varieties of language. The typical features of this style are: direct address to the audience; sometimes contractions; the use of colloquial words. The SDs employed in the oratorical style are determined by the conditions of communication. As the audience rely only on memory, the speaker often resorts to repetitions to enable his listeners to follow him and to retain the main points of his speech. The speaker often use simile and metaphor, but these are generally traditional, because genuine SDs may be difficult to grasp.

The essay is rather a series of personal and witty comments than a finished argument or a conclusive examination of the matter. The most characteristic language features of the essay are: brevity of expression; the use of the first person singular; a rather expanded use of connectives; the abundant use of emotive words; the use of similes and sustained metaphors.

The language of journalistic articles is defined by the character of newspaper, magazine, as well as subjects chosen. Literary reviews stand closer to essays.

[S] 3.7. Functional styles of language

Newspaper Style

English newspaper writing dates from the 17th century. The first of any regular English newspapers was the Weekly News which first appeared in May, 1622. The early English newspaper was principally a vehicle of information. Commentary found its way into the newspapers later. But as far back as the middle of the 18th century the British newspaper was very much like what it is today, carrying foreign and domestic news, advertisements, announcements and articles containing comments.

Not all the printed materials found in newspapers comes under newspaper style. Only materials which perform the function of informing the reader and providing him with an evaluation of information published can be regarded as belonging to newspaper style. English newspaper style can be defined as a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means which is perceived by the community as a separate linguistic unity that serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader. Information in the English newspaper is conveyed through the medium of:

1) brief news items;

2) press reports;

3) articles purely informational in character;

4) advertisements and announcements.

The newspaper also seeks to influence public opinion on political and other matters. Elements of appraisal may be observed in the very selection and way of presentation of news, in the use of specific vocabulary, casting some doubt on the facts recorded, and syntactical constructions indicating a lack of assurance of the reporter or his desire to avoid responsibility. The principle vehicle of interpretation and appraisal is the newspaper article and the editorial in particular. Editorial is a leading article which is characterized by a subjective handling of facts. This purpose defines the choice of language elements which are mostly emotionally colored.

Newspaper style has its specific vocabulary features and is characterized by an extensive use of:

1) special political and economic terms (president, election);

2) non-term political vocabulary (nation, crisis, agreement, member);

3) newspaper cliches (pressing problem, danger of war, pillars of society);

4) abbreviations (NATO, EEC);

5) neologisms.

[S] 3.8. Functional styles of language

The Style of Official Documents

This FS is not homogeneous and is represented by the following substyles or variants:

1) the language of business documents;

2) the language of legal documents;

3) the language of diplomacy;

4) the language of military documents.

Like other styles of language, this style has a definite communicative aim and its own system of interrelated language and stylistic means. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties and to reach agreement between two contracting parties. The most general function of the style of official documents predetermines the peculiarities of the style. The most striking feature is a special system of cliches, terms and set expressions by which each substyle can be easily recognized. Thus in finance we find terms like extra revenue, liability. In diplomacy such phrases as high contracting parties, memorandum, to ratify an agreement are found. In legal language, examples are to deal with a case, a body of judges.

All these varieties use abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions, for example, M.P. (Member of Parliament), Ltd (Limited), $. Abbreviations are especially abundant in military documents. They are used not only as conventional symbols, but also as signs of military code. Another feature of the style is the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning. There is no room here for the realization of any other meaning here.

<L> 1. Morphemes and their types

Morpheme is the smallest meaningful lexical unit.

Phoneme – meaningless unit

Lexical units

• morphemes

• words

• set expressions

Морфемный анализ cloud-y de-nat-ion-al-iz-ation

Classification of morphemes

1. The semantic classification

1. root-morpheme remains after removing all functional and derivational (словообразующие) affixes. It is recurrent in word of the family (повторяется) and has an individual lexical meaning. [re-do]

2. non-root-morphemes are morphemes which added to the root morpheme to make new forms of the same word of new words. (строить формы слова: -s, -ing, -ed –derivational affixes?)

The functional classification of non-root morphemes

1. inflexions – they carry only grammatical meaning (specific feature of any syntactical language)

2. affixes - derivational morphemes (словообразовательные)– are added to the base and modify its meaning or form new words.

do – redo (переделать)

prefixes – stay before the root morpheme

suffixed – stay after the root morpheme

interfixes – stay between stems (handicraft, Anglo-Saxon)

2. Structural classification

1. free morphemes (встречаться как свободно функционирующие слова) can be found as independent functioning words.

friendship:

friend - free morpheme, word friend

ship - not the word ship but suffix

2. bound morphemes (связанные) are morphemes which occur (встречаются) only as a constituent part of a word.

terr-or, horr-or

terr, horr – таких слов нет

3. Functional classification

1. unique morphemes are met only in one word of the given language

cran-berry

2. recurrent morphemes are met in a number of words

straw-berry

<L> 2.1. Compound words and their types

Another means of word formation is called composition. Composition is such word formation when the target word is formed by combining two or more stems. Usually the first component modifies or qualifies the second one. Compound words are hard to distinguish from free word combinations.

Compound words are words created by word composition.

ice-cream, bathroom, horse race – написание смотри в словаре

The structure of compound words

1. neutral are such compound which are formed without any linking element. They are build by mere juxtaposition (соединение) of two or more words.

ship-window, baby-sitter, marry-go-round

a) simple neutral compound - consists of simple affixless stem

shop-window, bedroom, sunflower, toy-boy, E-free (без консервантов)

b) derived compound – these are compound with affixes in their structure

teenager = teenag-er, [crash-worth]-ness

c) contracted – these are compound words with a shortened stem in their structure

V-day (день победы), TV-set (обе основы сокращ)

2. morphological compound- these are compound words with 2 stems linked by a vowel or consonant

[Angl]o-Saxon, [spoke]s[man]

3. syntactic compound - are formed from segments of speech. They are formed according the grammatical pattern existing in present day language.

marry-go-round, lily-of-the-valley (ландыш майский), good-for-nothing (никуда не годный), sit-at-home (домосед)

The semantics of compound words

1. completely motivated compounds (понятные по значению) – non-ideomatic

Their meaning can be described as a sum of their constituent parts

sky-blue (главная часть обычно стоит в конце – небесно голубой)

tea-tester – дегустатор чая

2. partially motivated compounds

One of their components had changed its meaning though the meaning reminas transparent (понятный)

football (это не мяч, это игра в мяч)

3. non-motivated – idiomatic

a ladybird (божья коровка), tallboy (комод), a horse-marine (человек, который занимает не свое место)

a tallboy – compound word, tall boy – словосочетание (word combination)

<L> 2.2. Compound words and their types

The criteria for distinguishing between a compound and a word combination

(plural – criteria, singular- criterion)

1. graphic criterion

Most of the compound words spelled either solidly (слитно) or with a hyphen (дефис)

I-know-what-you-are-going-to-say = word adjective

2. the semantic criterion

This criterion is especially important for idiomatic compound. In a few word combinations each component has its meaning.

Ex: blackbird - дрозд - I saw a black bird (я видел черную птицу)

3. the phonetic criterion

The compound words acquire a new stress pattern.

a ‘key a ‘hole – a ‘keyhole

4. the morphological and syntactical criteria

a) morphological

in word combination each component is opened to grammar changes

a tall boy -> a taller boy, a tall boys

a tallboy -> a tallboys

b) syntactical

New components can be introduced into a word group (word combination)

a tall handsome boy

<L> 3.1. Semasiology. Monosemy and polysemy.

Gotlib Frege, Ferdinand de Saussure

The units of language (or lexical units) are two-facet elements, they possess form and meaning. The basic unit of the vocabulary is the word. Morphemes are part of words into which the words can be segmented.

We determine the word as a linguistic sign. The word denotes objects or phenomena and gives names to them.

Some linguists consider as criteria the following feature: words are the smallest units of a language that can be used alone as a sentence (Fire! Here. Go! – one-member sentences). Another criterion for word identification is its mobility. The word is the smallest unit which can be moved to one position or another in a sentence.

The word is one of the fundamental units of language, it is a dialectical unity of form and content. The content and meaning are not identical in notion. Notions which are fixed in the meaning of words are formed as correct reflections of reality. The acoustic aspect of the word serves to denote the objects of reality. The word is always built out of the elements which already exist in a language and according to the existing patterns. The word as a basic unit of language directly corresponds to the object or referent.

The notion is generalized idea of the class of objects denoted by the given word.

The meaning is something that correlates all the three points of the semantic triangle.

The sound form gives a name to the referent is reflected in the notion and the notion is represented in the word.

Meaning is a complex of the three aspects which holds the total experience of the community in different spheres of life.

Ex: narcodollars, floatel (гостиница на воде)

Types of meaning

1. de’notative (значимый)

It expressed the conceptual content of the word. The denotative meaning shows the correlations between words and objects which they denote.

2. co’nnotative meaning (дополнительный)

There are 2 types of connotative meaning

a) emotive charge (эмоциональная нагрузка)

The component of meaning which gives information about the emotion of the speaker.

large – tremendous (эмоциональная нагрузка)

Oh! – только эмоциональная

b) stylistic reference (стилистическая референция)

the sphere of application of the word

child- neutral, kind – colloquial, infant - bookish

<L> 3.2. Semasiology. Monosemy and polysemy.

The word is a parcel of linguistic experience. The semantic side of the word is its meaning. Meaning is a fact of language. It is also associated with a given segment of concept and a given piece of linguistic expression. Meaning is always an abstraction from concrete facts of extra linguistic reality. It becomes a fact of language only when the connection established between this fact of reality and the certain sound complex. Meaning as a fact of language should be distinguished from concept. Concept is a unit of thinking. Meaning is based on dialectal unity of expression and content. The main units of meaning are words of a human language. They are bilateral two sided units. We determine the word as a linguistic sign. The word denotes objects or phenomena and gives names to them.

Words are global by definition, they are rooted in objective reality. The branch of the study of language which studies the meanings of words and word equivalents is called semasiology (“sema” = meaning).

Semasiology studies the semantics of linguistic units, the meanings of words, expressions or grammatical forms.

Considered in meaning English vocabulary falls into 2 groups: notional words and form-words (служебные слова).

Notional words embody (воплощать)concepts. They name objects or things, phenomena, states, processes, actions, qualities, etc. They are usually divided into 2 smaller groups: concrete and abstract.

Form-words show relations between concept and they may be divided into 2 groups as well: conjunctions and prepositions. The grammatical meaning dominates over the lexical meaning in form-words. Prepositions show relations between an object and another object, an object and a feature, an object and a process. Conjunctions connect words within a sentence or sentences together.

The meanings of words are studied and registered in dictionaries. Words which gave one meaning only are termed as monosemantic.

Monocemy is the existence within one word of only one meaning. The greatest number of words is polysemantic.

Polysemy is the existence within one word of several connected meanings as the result of development and changes of the primary or original meaning.

“Air”:

• the mixture of gasses; - primary

• breeze, a very light wind; - secondary

• aria = melody - secondary

• a way of behaving. - secondary

In a polysemantic word different types of meanings are distinguished. The first is called direct, primary, logical meaning. It is directed straight at the object it denotes. Sometimes it is called the main nominative meaning. [table – piece of furiture]

The meanings which are formed out of the main nominative meanings are traditionally called derived meanings or secondary meanings. These meanings are characterized by free-combine-ability (свободная сочетаемость). [table – part of machine – стол станка]

<L> 3.3. Semasiology. Monosemy and polysemy.

Other meanings of the word depend on collocation and colligation.

Collocation is a combination of words which condition the realization of a certain meaning (обуславливать определенное значение). This meaning is called a phraseologicaly bound meaning (фразеологически связанное).

make a mistake, do a test - when the words used together regularly, rules are formed about their use not for grammatical reasons.

Colligation is morphosyntactically conditions combinability of words. It’s means of realizing polysemy. It is called a constructional conditioned meaning (значение обусловленное структурой). [make do smb/smth – заставлять?]

We can use surprising, amazing, astonishing – It is amazing but we can use negative only with surprising – It is not surprising

The word is polysemantic in language but in actual speech it is always monosemantic and the context makes it monosemantic. The context shows that there is stability in the use of words. Natural sciences offer the most stable words because they have a clear denotation.

Denotation is the expression of the main meaning of the word.

Connotation is the supplementary meaning or stylistic shade. It is added to word’s main meaning. Connotation serves to express all sorts of emotional, expressive and evaluative shades.

Connotation facilitates shift in meaning. The meanings of words change constantly. The reasons for changes are various:

• The linguistic unit should be used with a reference to a new object or phenomena (the extralinguistic reasons).

• The linguistic unit is itself subject to change and this reference may become transformed (the introlinguistic reasons).

(MKK) 1. что такое язык и что такое культура

2 main functions of language: the communicative, the expressive

The 2 functions of language determine its basic linguistic properties.

Language is organized structure of independent elements. The system of language is made up of smaller subsystems. All elements of these systems are closely connected and correlated through different oppositions or paradigmatic relations.

Language must always fulfill (carry out)its functions and any language can't stop being an organized structure of elements (components).

Language is a means of forming and storing ideas as reflections of reality and exchanging them in the process of human intercourse. Language is social by nature; it is inseparably connected with the people who are its creators and users; it grows and develops together with the development of society.*

Language incorporates the three constituent parts ("sides"), each being inherent in it by virtue of its social nature. These parts are the phonological system, the lexical system, the grammatical system. Only the unity of these three elements forms a language; without any one of them there is no human language in the above sense.

Итак, все определения представителей разных эпох, стран и школ сходятся в главном: язык — это средство общения, средство выражения мыслей. Разумеется, у него есть и другие функции, но эти две — самые основные. Язык служит коммуникации, это главный, самый эксплицитный, самый официальный и социально признанный из всех видов коммуникативного поведения. «Язык является коммуникативным процессом в чистом виде в каждом известном нам обществе»

Коммуникация— акт общения, связь между двумя или более индивидами, основанная на взаимопонимании; сообщение информации одним лицом другому или ряду лиц (И.).

Культура - Совокупность достижений человеческого общества в производственной, общественной и духовной жизни. Материальная культура. Духовная культура. История культуры говорит нам, что знания, которые выработаны трудом людей, накоплены наукой, всё растут... и служат опорой для дальнейшего бесконечного развития наших познавательных способностей.

Межкультурная коммуникация. Этим термином называется адекватное взаимопонимание двух участников коммуникативного акта, принадлежащих к разным национальным культурам

Таким образом, соотношение языка и культуры — вопрос сложный и многоаспектный.

Язык — сокровищница, кладовая, копилка культуры. Он хранит культурные ценности (совокупность результатов деятельности)— в лексике, в грамматике, в идиоматике, в пословицах, поговорках, в фольклоре, в художественной и научной литературе, в формах письменной и устной речи.

Язык — передатчик, носитель культуры, он передает сокровища национальной культуры, хранящейся в нем, из поколения в поколение. Овладевая родным языком, дети усваивают вместе с ним и обобщенный культурный опыт предшествующих поколений.

Язык — орудие, инструмент культуры. Он формирует личность человека, носителя языка, через навязанные ему языком и заложенные в языке видение мира, менталитет, отношение к людям и т. п., то есть через культуру народа, пользующегося данным языком как средством общения.

Итак, язык не существует вне культуры как «социально унаследованной совокупности практических навыков и идей, характеризующих наш образ жизни» Как один из видов человеческой деятельности, язык оказывается составной частью культуры, определяемой (см. выше) как совокупность результатов человеческой деятельности в разных сферах жизни человека: производственной, общественной, духовной.

Однако в качестве формы существования мышления и, главное, как средство общения язык стоит в одном ряду с культурой. Если же рассматривать язык с точки зрения его структуры, функционирования и способов овладения им (как родным, так и иностранным), то социокультурный слой, или компонент культуры, оказывается частью языка или фоном его реального бытия.

В то же время компонент культуры — не просто некая культурная информация, сообщаемая языком. Это неотъемлемое свойство языка, присущее всем его уровням и всем отраслям.

(MKK) 2.1. история развития теории межкультурной коммуникации

Проблемы изучения межкультурной коммуникации. Проблемы взаимодействия культур привлекают внимание исследователей различных направлений. Однако межкультурная коммуникация как академическая дисциплина сформировалась не сразу. Важным этапом ее формирования принято считать 1954 год, когда была опубликована работа Э. Холла и Д. Трагера «Культура и коммуникация. Модель анализа». («Culture as Communication»)

Авторы этой книги предложили использовать термин «межкультурная коммуникация» для обозначения особой области человеческих отношений. На протяжении нескольких лет Э. Холл возглавлял Институт службы за границей, созданный в 1946 году в США с целью улучшения подготовки государственных служащих для работы в иностранных государствах. Главными задачами Института были изучение проблемы общения представителей различных культур и выработка практических рекомендаций, касающихся того, как следует себя вести в той или иной стране, чтобы избежать возникновения конфликтов, обусловленных культурными различиями. Для решения указанных задач были привлечены специалисты самых различных направлений: социологи, психологи лингвисты и др. Таким образом, с самого начала исследования в области межкультурной коммуникации имели прикладной и комплексный характер. Главной задачей этих исследований на первом этапе стало изучение причин коммуникативных неудач в ситуациях межкультурного ^ общения и выработка рекомендаций по их преодолению.

В 1959 году Э. Холл публикует еще одну работу - «Немой язык» («The Silent Language»), в которой идея межкультурной коммуникации получила свое дальнейшее развитие '. Автор указывает на тесную связь, v существующую между культурой и коммуникацией, и обосновывает вывод о том, что межкультурную коммуникацию можно не только изучать, но и преподавать. Межкультурная коммуникация стала рассматриваться не только как новое направление научных исследований, но и как учебная дисциплина.

Дата добавления: 2015-11-14