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The sixth period extends from the mid-17th c. to the close of the 18th c. In the history of the language it is often called “the age of normalization and correctness”, in the history of literature – the “neoclassical” age. It is essential that during the 18th c. literary English differentiated into distinct styles, which is a property of a mature literary language. The 18th c. has been called the period of “fixing the pronunciation”. The great sound shifts were over and pronunciation was being stabilized. Word usage and grammatical construction were subjected to restriction and normalization.

The English language of the 19th and 20th c. represents the seventh period in the history of English. It is called Late New English or Modern English. The classical language of literature was strictly distinguished from the local dialects and the dialects of lower social rank. The dialects were used in oral communication and, as a rule, had no literary tradition. The 20th c. witnessed (свидетельствует о значительном смешении)considerable intermixture of dialects. The local dialects were retreated(отступать) and displaced by Standard English. The English vocabulary has grown on an unprecedented scale reflecting the rapid progress of technology, science and culture and other multiple changes in all spheres of man’s activity.

(H) 3.1. Rise of the London dialect

The Norman Conquest was not only a great event in British political history but also the greatest single event in the history of the English language. The Norman Conquerors of England had originally come from Scandinavia. First they had seized(завладели) the valley of the Seine and settled in what is known as Normandy. They were swiftly assimilated by the French and in the 11th c. came to Britain as French speakers. Their tongue in Britain is often referred to as “Anglo-French” or “Anglo-Norman”, but may just as well be called French. The most important consequence of Norman domination in Britain is to be seen in the wide use of the French language in many spheres of life. For almost three hundred years French was the official language of administration: it was the language of the king’s court, the church, the army and others. The intellectual life, literature and education were in the hands of French-speaking people. For all(несмотря на) that, England never stopped being an English-speaking country. The bulk of the population spoke their own tongue and looked upon(смотреть на- считать французов за иностранцев) French as foreign and hostile(враг, враждебный). At first two languages existed side by side without mingling(без смешания). Then, slowly and quietly, they began to penetrate each other. The three hundred years of the domination of French affected English more than any other foreign influence before or after. The early French borrowings reflect accurately(точно) the spheres of Norman influence upon(=on) English life; later borrowings can be attributed(приписаны) to the continued(продолжительный) cultural, economic and political contacts between the countries.

In the late 14th century English was reestablished as the official language of Britain, the literary language of English dates from the 14th century. The 300 years of domination of the French language affected the English language in many spheres. The greater influence of French in the high ranks(ранг в обществе) of society led to great differences in original and social dialects. A more specific influence was made on the alphabet and spelling. From the phonetic structure of the language, especially word accentuation(манера произношения) was affected by the numerous numbers of French borrowings, which were adopted by the English language. However the influence of French affected the grammatical structure of the language.

The dialect division which evolved(развивалось) in Early ME was on the whole preserved in later periods. In the 14th and 15th c. we find the same grouping of local dialects: the Southern group, including Kentish and the South-Western dialects (the South-Western group was a continuation of the OE Saxon dialects), the Midland or Central (corresponding to the OE Mercian dialect – is divided into West Midland and East Midland as two main areas) and the Northern group (had developed from OE Northumbrian). And yet the relations between them were changing. The most important event in the changing linguistic situation was the rise of the London dialect as the prevalent written form of language. The history of the London dialect reveals(обнаруживать, раскрываться) the sources of the literary language in Late ME and also the main source and basis of the Literary Standard, both in its written and spoken forms. The Early ME written records made in London – beginning with the PROCLAMATION of 1258 – show that the dialect of

(H) 3.2. Rise of the London dialect

London was fundamentally East Saxon. Later records indicate that the speech of London was becoming more fixed, with East Midland features gradually prevailing over the Southern features.

In the 14th century English revived(возрождаться) as the official language. The 4 main dialects: Northern, Southern, West and East were struggling for supremacy(превосходство) but none of them predominated. Literary English originated from the language of the 14th century. The London dialect had developed from several local dialects. The history of the London reveal(разоблачать) source of the literary English in Mid. English period. The London dialect was the main source of the national English language in its written and spoken forms. The history of London reaches back(уходит в прошлое) to Roman days. In OE times London was the biggest town in Britain also the capital of Wessex.

In 1018 1/8 of all Danegeld(сбора во время датского правления, собранного по стране) collected from all over the country came from London. The capital was transferred to London before the Norman Conquest. The early ME records were made in London in 1258. It was the London proclamation(провозглашение). These records show that London dialects came from the East Saxon dialects, from the South-Western dialects of the Southern groups.

The speech of London became more mixed with East-Middle features. They prevailed gradually over the Southern features. That explained that the mixed character of London speech is based in the history of the London population. In the 12th and 14th centuries the inhabitants of London came from the neighboring South-Western districts. In the middle of 14th century London was practically depopulated due to the Black Death(черная смерть - чума). About of 1/3 of the population of Britain died. The biggest proportion of death came to London. But in 1377 London had already many inhabitants. Most of arrivals came from the East Midland and the other districts. It was wealthy resettlement of medieval Britain(средневековый). In the late 14th century the speech of the Londoners was brought closer to the East Midland dialect.

East Midland dialect

From the 14th century a large number of the official and literary papers written in London dialect showed a large number of Midland dialect features. The London dialect becomes East Midland in character. The flourishing of literature in the second half of the 14th century testifies(торжественно устанавливает) the establishment of London dialect as the literary language. Some authors wrote their works by means of the local dialects which differed from the London dialect. Other author represented various combinations of London and original dialects. Towards the end of the century more and more works were written in the London dialect. It became the most common form of language. One of the most prominent authors was John de Trevisa. In 1332 he translated 7 books of the World History from Latin to South-Western dialects of English. Trevisa's manner of speech was greatly influenced by French.

(H) 3.3. Rise of the London dialect

The Mercian dialects were spoken in central England but they were understood by neighboring (people from the North and South districts). Of great linguistic importance was the activity of John Wycliffe. He was the forerunner of the English reformation. His contribution(вклад) to English was his and his pupils translation of the Bible which was completed in 1384. Besides he wrote some pamphlets where he criticized the corruption of the church. His texts were often copied and read by many people all over the country. He wrote mostly using the London dialect and it played an important role in the spreading of this dialect of English. John Goer – another poet (author) was born not far from London, nearer to Kent. But there are not many Kentisms in his works. (These) His poems were written in Anglo-Norman and Latin.

Geoffrey Chaucer

Geoffrey Chaucer, a famous writer before the age of Shakespeare, played the most important role in development of London dialect. In the history of English he was described by many writers as faunder of literary English language. He was born about the year 1340. He was an ambassador, official employee, a member of parliament. He communicated with all sorts of people and in his works he gave a true and vivid(живую) picture of England. He wrote in a dialect which coincided in(совпадать) the main features with the London dialect. He didn't create the literary language as poet of outstanding talent. But he made better use of the literary language in his poems and he set up the pattern of the literary language. In the period of the 14th to the 15th century his poems were copied all over the country and his books were among the first to be printed hundred years after the composition. Author's literary language is based on the mixed East Midland dialect of London. It is known as a classical Middle English. In the 15th-16th centuries it became the basis of the national standard form of a written language.

(H) 4. The Great vowel shift

Magic change in the pronunciation of English language. It took place in the south of England between 1200-1600. GVS was first studied by Danish linguist, Otto Jesperson. He created this term. Main difference between pronunciation ME and Modern English.

GVS is the most important historical event. It marked the separation between ME and Modern English. These vowels had continental values.

During GVS 2 highest long became diphthongs. Other 5 vowels increase in tongue high.

Principal changes:

1. MidE [long a] fronted to open[ǽ] and then raised to [e]. In many dialects it diphthongoised into [ei] [make]

2. MidE [ ] raised into [e] and to [i:]

3. MidE [ei] raised into down [i] [fit]

4. MidE [i]? (miss) diphthongoised to ModE [ai] [mise]

5. MidE [o:] raised to [o] and ModE [ou] boat

6. MidE [o:] raised to [u]

7. [u:] raised into diphthong [ou] – ModE [au] mouse

But before labial consonants this shift did not occur and [u] remains as [u:] root

Labial (губные)consonants are divided into:

- bilabial consonants which are articulated by two lips [p, b, m, w];

- labio-dental consonants are articulated with the lower lip against the upper teeth [v, f].

This means that the vowel in some English words was pronounced similar to modern vowels.

But the effects of vowel shift were not entirely uniformed in all dialects. Differences in degree of vowel shifting can be detected in region dialects both on written and oral form [speech of Scotland]

Shortening of long vowels produced complications:

Shortening before [d ] and [t∫] dead –[did]

Some borrowings have a spelling form origin by ratianed – they are treated as exceptions of GVS

English spelling was becoming standardiezed in 15-17 centuries. GVS is responsible for many of peculiarities of English spelling.

[S] 1. Stylistics as a branch of general linguistics

Stylistics sometimes called lingua-stylistics is a branch of general linguistics. It deals mainly with 2 interdependent tasks. The first task of stylistics is the investigation of the inventory (список) of special language media (средств). The second task includes the investigation of certain type of texts which due to the choice and arrangement of language means are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect (прагматический) of the communication.

The inventory of special language media can be analyzed if presented in a system in which the correlation between the media becomes evident. The types of texts can be analyzed if their linguistic components are presented in their interaction (взаимодействие), thus revealing the unbreakable unity and transparency of constructions of a given time. Those types of texts that are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of the communication are called functional styles.

The speech media of the language which provide the desirable effect of the utterance are called stylistic devises (SD) and expressive means (EM). The first field of investigation, that is SD and EM, touches upon such general language problems as the aesthetic function (эстетическая) of language, synonymous ways of rendering one and the same idea, emotional coloring in language, the interrelation between language and thought etc.

The second field, that is functional stylistics, touches upon such most general linguistics issues as oral and written varieties of language, the notion of the literary [standard] language, and the elements of texts larger than the seconds? etc.

The word style is derived from the Latin word “stylus” which meant a short stick sharp at one end and flat at the other used by the Romans for writing on wax tablets (таблички из воска). Now the word style is applied to the teaching of how to write a composition. It is also used to reveal the correspondence between thought and its expression. It frequently denoted an individual manner of making use of language. It sometimes refers to move general, abstract notion.

[S] 2.1. Stylistics classification of the English vocabulary

In order to get a more or less clear idea of the word stock (словарный состав) of any language, it must be presented as a system, the elements of which are interconnected, interrelated and get independent. The word stock of the English language is derived into 3 main layers:

• the literary layer (литературный)

• the neutral layer

• the colloquial layer

The literary layer as well as the colloquial layer contains a number of subgroups each of which has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. This common property which unites the different groups of words within the layer may be called its aspect.

• The aspect of the literary layer is its bookish character. This makes the layer more or less stable.

• The aspect of the colloquial layer is its spoken character. This makes it unstable, fleeting (плавающий).

• The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means, it is unrestricted in its views. It can be used in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity. This makes the layer the most stable of all.

The literary layer of words consists of groups excepted legitimate (за исключением полноправных) member of the English vocabulary. They have no local or dialectal character.

The colloquial layer of words is frequently limited to a definite language community or confined to a special locality where it circulates.

The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups:

• common literary words

• terms and learned words (научные слова)

• poetic words

• archaic words

• barbarisms and foreign words

• literary coinages/ neologisms

The colloquial layer falls into following groups of words

• common colloquial words

• slang

• jargonisms

• professional words

• dialectal words

• vulgar words

• colloquial neologisms

[S] 2.2. Stylistics classification of the English vocabulary

Common literary words, neutral words, common colloquial words are called standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary vocabulary and special vocabulary

Colloquial Neutral Literal

Kid child infant

Daddy father parent

teenager boy/ girl youth

Special literary vocabulary. Barbarisms and foreign words

Barbarisms (иностранного происхождения, неотъемлемая часть)

It the vocabulary of the English language there is a considerable layer of words called Barbarisms.

Those are words of foreign origin which have been completely assimilated into the English language. They have appearance of borrowing and are felt as something alien (чуждый) to the native tongue.

The great majority of these borrowed words now form part and parcel (неотъемлемая часть) of the English vocabulary. Most of them have corresponding English synonyms.

Ex: chick = stylish, ‘chagrin (vexation) – досада, en route - on the road = по пути

bon mot (a clever or witty saying) - острота, en passant = in passing – мимоходом

They are used for certain stylistic purposes in formal style. Etymologically they are of Latin, Greek or French origin. Mostly they are legal terms (de facto, entre nous, brochure etc.).

It is very important for purely stylistic purposes to distinguish between borrowings and foreign words proper. Barbarisms are words which have already become facts of the English language.

Foreign words

Foreign words do not belong to the English vocabulary. They are not registered by English dictionaries except in a kind of addenda (приложение) which give the meanings of the foreign words most frequent used in literary English. Barbarisms are generally given in the body of the dictionary in printed works (работах). Foreign words are phrased as generally italicized (выделять курсивом) to indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value.

There are foreign words in English vocabulary which fulfill a terminological function such as perestroika, silovik, and apparatchik, soviet, kolkhoz

Retrograde – уже прочно вошел

They denote certain concepts which reflect an objective reality non familiar to English speaking communities. There are no names for them in English and so they have to be explained. New concepts of this time are generally given the names they have in the language of the people whose reality they reflect.

It is such words as solo, concerto, tenor, Luftwaffe, blitzkrieg (блиц крик), blitz.

They should also be distinguished from barbarisms, they are terms. Terminological borrowings have no synonyms.

Function of foreign words

• supply local color

• build up the stylistic devices

[S] 3.1. Functional styles of language

The object of lingo-stylistics is the study of the nature, functions and structures of stylistic devices (SD) and expressive means (ЕМ) оn the оnе hand, and the study of the functional styles, оn the other. А functional style of language is а system of interrelated language means which serves а definite aim in communication. А functional style is thus to bе regarded as the product of а certain concrete task set bу the sender of the message. Functional styles арреаг mainly in the literary standard of а language.

The literary standard of the English language, like that of аnу other developed language, is not as homogeneous as it mау seem. In fact the Standard English literary language in the course of its development has fallen into several subsystems each of which has acquired its own peculiarities which аге typical of the given functional style. The peculiar choice of language means is primarily predetermined bу the aim of the communication. Оnе set of language media stands in opposition to other sets of language media with other aims, and these other sets have other choices and arrangements of language means.

What we here call functional styles аге also called registers оr discourses.

In the English literary standard we distinguish the following major functional styles (hence FS):

1) The language of belles-Letters.

2) The language of publicist literature.

3) The language of newspapers.

4) The language of scientific prose.

5) The language of official documents.

Each FS mау bе characterized bу а number of distinctive features. Each FS is subdivided into а number of sub styles. These represent varieties of the abstract invariant. Each variety has basic features соmmоn to all the varieties of the given FS and peculiar features typical of this variety alone.

The belles-lettres FS has the following sub styles:

а) the language style of poetry;

b) the language style of emotive prose;

с) the language style of drama.

The publicist FS comprises the following sub styles:

а) the language style of oratory;

b) the language style of essays;

с) the language style of feature articles in newspapers and journals.

[S] 3.2. Functional styles of language

The newspaper FS falls into

а) the language style of brief news items and communiqués;

b) the language style of newspaper headings;

с) the language style of notices and advertisements.

The scientific prose FS also has three divisions:

а) the language style of humanitarian sciences;

Ь) the language style of "exact" sciences;

с) the language style of popular scientific prose.

The official/ document FS can be divided into four varieties:

а) the language style of diplomatic documents;

Ь) the language style of business documents;

с) the language style of legal documents;

d) the language style of military documents.

The classification presented here is by no means arbitrary. This classification is not proof against criticism. Other schemes may possibly be elaborated and highlighted by different approaches to the problem of functional styles. Thus, for example, some linguists consider that newspaper articles (including feature articles) should bе classed under the functional style of newspaper language, not under the language of publicist literature. Others insist оn including the language of everyday-life discourse into the system of functional styles. Prof. Budagov singles out only two main functional styles: the language of science and that of emotive literature.

When analysing concrete texts, we discover that the boundaries between FSs sometimes bесоmе less and less discernible. Thus, for instance, the signs of difference are sometimes almost imperceptible, between poetry and emotive prose; between newspaper FS and publicist FS; between а popular scientific article and а scientific treatise; between аn essay and а scientific article.

But the extremes аrе apparent from the ways language units аrе used both structurally and semantically.

Functional styles (FS) are the subsystems of language, each subsystem having its own peculiar features in what concern vocabulary means, syntactical constructions, and even phonetics. The appearance and existence of FS is connected with the specific conditions of communication in different spheres of human life. FS differ not only by the possibility or impossibility of using some elements but also due to the frequency of their usage. For example, some terms can appear in the colloquial style but the possibility of its appearance is quite different form the possibility to meet it in an example of scientific style.

[S] 3.3. Functional styles of language

The classification of FS is a very complicated problem, that is why we will consider ideas of I.V.Arnold and I.R. Galperin, bearing in mind that Galperin treats functional styles as patterns of the written variety of language thus excluding colloquial FS. Both scholars agree that each FS can be recognized by one or more leading features. But Galperin pays more attention to the coordination of language means and stylistic devices whereas Arnold connects the specific features of each FS with its peculiarities in the sphere of communication.

According to I.R. Galperin, a functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. A functional style should be regarded as the product of a certain concrete task set by the sender of the message. Functional styles appear mainly in the literary standard of the language. These represent varieties of the abstract invariant and can deviate from the invariant, even breaking away with it.

Each FS is a relatively stable system at the given stage in the development of the literary language, but it changes, and sometimes considerably, from one period to another. Therefore FS is a historical category. Thus, for example in the 17th century it was considered that not all words can be used in poetry, and that a separate poetic style exists. Later, in the 19th century romanticism rejected the norms of poetic style and introduced new vocabulary to poetry. The development of each style is predetermined by the changes in the norms of standard English. It is also greatly influenced by changing social conditions, the progress of science and the development of cultural life.

Every functional style of language is marked by a specific use of language means, thus establishing its own norms which, however, are subordinated to the norm-invariant and which do not violate the general notion of the literary norm. The writers of the given period in the development of the literary language contribute greatly to establishing the system of norms of their period. It is worth noting that the investigations of language norms at a given period are to great extent maintained on works of men of letters. Selection, or deliberate choice of language, and the ways the chosen elements are treated are the main distinctive features of individual style.

Individual style is a unique combination of language units, expressive means and stylistic devices peculiar to a given writer, which makes that writer's works or even utterances easily recognizable. (Galperin, p.17) Naturally, the individual style of a writer will never be entirely independent of the literary norms and canons of the given period. But the adaptations of these canons will always be peculiar and therefore distinguishable. Individual style is based on a thorough knowledge of the contemporary language and allows certain justifiable deviations from the rigorous norms. Individual style requires to be studied in a course of stylistics in so far as it makes use of the potentialities of language means, whatever the characters of these potentialities may be.

All men of letters have a peculiar individual manner of using language means to achieve the effect they desire. Writers choose language means deliberately. This process should be distinguished from language peculiarities which appear in everyday speech of this or that particular individual (idiolect).

[S] 3.4. Functional styles of language

NEUTRAL STYLE:: COLLOQUIAL STYLE:: BOOKISH STYLE

The term “neutral style” is used mostly to denote the background for realizing stylistic peculiarities of stylistically colored elements. Neutral style is characterized by the absence of stylistic coloring and by the possibility to be used in any communicative situation. This style is deliberately simplified.

If neutral style serves any situation of communication colloquial style serves situations of spontaneous everyday communication (casual, non-formal). Bookish style corresponds to public speech (non-casual, formal). This division does not coincide with the division into spoken and written language because colloquial style can be used in fiction, bookish style represented for example by oratorical style exists in the oral form only. At the same time we should remember that colloquial speech which we meet in fiction has undergone some transformations: the writer usually compresses linguistic information choosing the typical and avoiding the accidental.

Colloquial style is divided into upper colloquial, common colloquial and low colloquial. The latter two have their own peculiar features connected with region, gender, age of the speaker. Bookish style embraces scientific, official, publicistic (newspaper), oratorical, and poetic styles.

Arnold belongs to the group of scholars who reject the existence of belles-letres style. Her opinion is that each work of literature presents an example of the author’s individual speech and thus follows its own norm, in the work of literature authors often use different FS.

She introduces the notion of language function characteristic for different FS. Intellectual-communicative function is connected with the transferring of intellectual ideas. Voluntary function serves for influencing the will-power and conscience of listener or reader.

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