The available knowledge base in learner LTM is used to provide executive guidance in the process of knowledge elaboration;

2) External instructional guidance substitutes for missing LTM schema – based guidance;

Adaptive learning environment based on rapid diagnostic methods could be effective means for tailoring knowledge elaboration processes to changing characteristics of individual learners and optimizing executive guidance at different stages of knowledge elaboration.

Elaborating higher-level knowledge requires cognitive resources for dealing with flexible, non-routine aspects of performance. Acquisition of task specific skills is an essential condition for the release of such resources. Continuous balancing of executive guidance is essential for reducing or eliminating other sources of cognitive over-load by presenting required guidance at the appropriate time and removing unnecessary redundant support as learner proficiency in a domain increases. Adaptive learning environments that dynamically tailor levels of external instructional support to changing individual levels of learner knowledge could effectively optimize executive guidance during knowledge elaboration processes (Kalyuga, 2009). Some other researchers (Calcaterra, Antonietti, & Underwood, 2005) have examined the influence of cognitive style, spatial orientation and computer expertise on hypertext navigation patterns and learning outcomes when participants interacted with a hypermedia presentation. Their results indicated that hypermedia navigation behavior was linked to computer skills rather than to cognitive style and that learning outcomes were unaffected by cognitive style or by computer skills. However, learning outcomes were positively affected by specific search patterns, such as by re-visiting hypermedia sections and visiting overview sections in the early stages of hypermedia browsing. Further, navigating overview sections and holistic processing fostered knowledge representation in the form of maps. These findings suggest that individual differences can affect hypermedia navigation even though their role in learning is complex and the impact of cognitive style on learning outcomes was proved to be lass important than initially predicted. Researchers like P. Jamieson, J. Dane, and P. C. Lippman (2005) have worked on the issue ‘‘what type of design layouts can promote the diverse ways in which students create knowledge and develop skills?” ‘‘What would be the future of the ‘classroom’ as a paradigm for teaching and learning settings within the university’’? They have proposed the notion of ‘learning spaces’ as layered transactional settings for liberating our thinking and our approach to spatial design in order to achieve dynamic learning environments, and to meet current and future needs of teachers and ever increasing students.

Problem – based Learning and Pedagogy:

Problem solving in real-world contexts involves multiple ways of knowing and learning. Thus, intelligence in the real world involves not only learning how to do things effectively but also more importantly the ability to deal with novelty and growing our capacity to adapt, select and shape our interactions with the environment. Knowledge in this new millennium is increasingly characterized by the creative integration of information and learning from diverse disciplines. Hence, educators, policy makers and researchers need to be aware of new approaches of dealing with knowledge and information where problems can be used innovatively in pedagogies. Problem based learning is an inquiry-based pedagogy that is best rooted in sound understanding of the psychological processes of problem solving and the development of cognition. The ability to learn when plunged into an unfamiliar situation and to adapt positively to rapidly changing demands is a reality for every worker today. Our students now-a-days not only need to learn to confront problems as a matter of necessity but also need to develop a positive mindset of observation and taking on ‘problems’ as a matter of inquisitiveness to improve and invent processes and products. Thus, problem solving in real world contexts involves multiple perspectives and multiple ways of knowing and multi-disciplinary learning (Tan, 2003). In present times one of the most important things today is the ability to gain different perspectives, develop multi-viewpoints, be aware of different worldviews and paradigms and different ways of reasoning and thinking so that we can highly be flexible in our thinking in new environments.

Research on memory and knowledge points out that memory is not just associations, but more importantly the connections and meaningful coherent structures of learning experiences. Learning is not just about being systematic and breaking things into small parts but also seeing the big / whole / total picture. The whole is more meaningful than sum of its parts is not a new concept, but learning to get an overview first and learning to get into important details more selectively as and when we need was not the common practice in pedagogy. Now we can know more about “novice” learners and “expert” learners. We can develop better learning in individuals by providing opportunities for acquisition of procedures and skills through dealing with information in a problem space and learning of general strategies of problem solving. We need to talk aloud – thinking processes and strategies and not just content or factual knowledge. Moreover, individuals can be taught meta-cognitive processes and self – regulatory thinking. Initially we need a structured and organized approach for acquiring fundamental knowledge and foundations. Our brain and mind are wired in such a way that we learn well through pattern recognition, observation and imitation. The mind can also be highly stimulated through novelty – dealing with situation of newness. Often mind seeks for change and new challenges. This calls for a different perspective in thinking that would require a more holistic and integrative approach.

Once upon a time, good pedagogy was about making content knowledge visible to students. This was probably started by behaviorist psychology where specific behavioral objectives followed by the management and reinforcement of learning led to the attainment of the desired knowledge and skills. Teaching involved providing clear explanation to students in disseminating knowledge and solving problems. In 1960s Jean Piaget’s work on cognitive development gained momentum which was based on three interrelated conceptions such as 1) – the relation between action and thought, 2) – the construction of the cognitive structure, and 3) – the role of self – regulation. According to Piaget, logical thinking and reasoning about complex situations represent the highest form of cognitive development. In the 1970s, cognitive psychology gained new ground as interest in “mentalism” grew. Vygotsky (1978) believed that intelligence begins in the social environment and directs itself inward and that all psychological processes are in genesis essentially social processes, initially shared among people. He posited that higher mental processes are functions of mediated activity. According to Vygotsky’s explanation in his ‘theory of internalization’, in the classroom, an expert teacher may model many approaches of a problem – solving process for the student. The students will need to internalize these processes as their own problem – solving activities if they are to develop effective self – regulation and meta-cognitive abilities. In 1980s the emphasis was on the “teaching of thinking” as a relatively new concept (Costa & Lowery, 1989; Resnick, 1987). Staff development in teaching thinking was stressed, and making teachers’ thinking visible was in many ways the next wave of good pedagogy. Thus, towards the last decade of 20^th century, effective teaching was characterized by modeling the process of learning so that students could observe and learn process skills, problem – solving skills, and thinking skills while acquiring content knowledge. In 1990s, instead of being concerned about what students failed to learn, Feuerstein, (1990; see Oon-Seng Tan, 2007) turned his focus to what they could learn, and the inner structure of cognition. He was more concerned with cognitive processes pertaining to learning to learn and thinking about thinking. He preferred to search for a more proximal and optimistic determinant of cognitive development, the presence of a competent mediator by helping learners discover their learning potentials and gain awareness of their thinking and thinking about thinking. His theory of mediated learning experience, provides the psychological basis for pedagogy that helps to make student’s thinking visible. The use of challenging learning environments, as in PBL activities, encourages questioning and overcomes the fear of making mistakes. Pintrich (2000) described self-regulated learning as a process by which students engage in different strategies to regulate their cognition, motivation, and behavior, as well as the context. Problem – based learning processes call for strategies that are goal–directed and self–directed in the context of problem. Facilitating the acquisition of self–regulated learning strategies is an important aspect of metacognition. In the 21^st century, the knowledge–based economy fueled by information explosion and accessibility, globalization and rapid proliferation of technology demands new competencies, thus calls for a different paradigm in pedagogy. Currently educators have to confront new ways of looking at knowledge and participation in the learning process. Pedagogy in the 21^st century has to go beyond making content visible and making teachers thinking visible. Good pedagogy today is about making students’ thinking visible. The challenge of education is to design learning environments and processes where students’ ways of thinking and knowing are manifested in active collaborative, self–regulated, and self directed learning. The role of the teacher is to enable students to recognize the state, repertoire, and depth of various dimensions of their thinking and to sharpen their abilities to deal with real world problems. The “Visibility” of students’ cognition is a prerequisite for effective mediation and facilitation (O.S. Tan, 2007). Thus, the progressive challenges of pedagogy can be summed up as –

Дата добавления: 2015-11-14