The Lord of the Flies

Stream of consciousness (поток сознания): The device claims to create most tangible illusion of presence, of witnessing a character’s emotions and feelings. A character’s thoughts are presented in such a way, as if a reader overhears them in the mind of a character.

In “The Waves” there are six narrators, a first-person narration. Virginia Woolf dilutes characters’ monologues with nine interludes, written in third-person, which describe a sea at varying stages. These interludes symbolize changes that characters undergo during their whole life. Thus the author includes symbolism into the novel which could not have been demonstrated in characters’ monologues. As the story develops and as characters grow older, the picture changes: “The sun had not yet risen.” corresponds to characters’ childhood. “The sun rose higher.” relates to the time when children go to school. “The sun rose.” refers to their time in college, etc.

Mrs Dalloway (1925)

To the Lighthouse (1927)

Orlando (1928)

4. Литература модернизма: жанровые модификации романов Дж.Джойса.

James Joyce (1882 – 1941)

Method - Stream of consciousness (поток сознания)

Центральное произведение «потока сознания» в литературе — «Улисс» (1922) Джойса, продемонстрировавшее одновременно вершину и исчерпанность возможностей метода «потока сознания»: исследование внутренней жизни человека сочетается в нём с размыванием границ характера, психологический анализ нередко превращается в самоцель.

Примером одной из ранних попыток применения подобного приёма может служить прерывающийся и повторяющийся внутренний монолог главной героини в последних частях романа Льва Толстого «Анна Каренина».

-the breaking of grammatical rules

-punctuation is neglected

-colloquial language

The novel Ulysses focuses on one day – June 16, 1904 – in the life of Mr. Leopold Bloom, a middle-aged Jewish man living in Dublin, Ireland. The groundbreaking stream-of-consciousness style allows the reader not only to trace the actions of Bloom's day, but also to follow the movement of his thoughts, to hear the inner timbre of his needs and desires, his joy and his despair. In doing so, the novel nearly breaks the back of realism (literature with a goal of portraying people and events as they exist in the real world).

5. Творчество Б.ОНоллана.

Brian O'Nolan (1911 – 1966)

6. Роман-антиутопия в творчестве Дж. Оруэлла.

George Orwell (Eric Blair) (1903 – 1950)

Eric Blair was born in 1903 in Motihari (Bihar, India) in the then British colony of India, where his father, Richard, worked for the Opium Department of the Civil Service. After finishing his studies at Eton, having no prospect of gaining a university scholarship and his family's means being insufficient to pay his tuition, Eric joined the Indian Imperial Police in Burma (Myanmar). He resigned and returned to England in 1928 having grown to hate imperialism (as shown by his first novel Burmese Days, published in 1934, and by such essays as 'A Hanging', and 'Shooting an Elephant'). He adopted his pen name in 1933, while writing for the New Adelphi. He chose a pen name that stressed his deep, lifelong affection for the English tradition and countryside: George is the patron saint of England (and George V was monarch at the time), while the River Orwell in Suffolk was one of his most beloved English sites.

Soon after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, Orwell volunteered to fight for the Republicans against Franco's Nationalist uprising. As a sympathiser of the Independent Labour Party (of which he became a member in 1938), he joined the militia of its sister party in Spain, the non-Stalinist far-left POUM (Workers' Party of Marxist Unification), in which he fought as an infantryman.

In 1944 Orwell finished his anti-Stalinist allegory Animal Farm, an allegory of the corruption of the socialist ideals of the Russian Revolution by Stalinism, and the latter is Orwell's prophetic vision of the results of totalitarianism.

In 1949 his best-known work, the dystopian Nineteen Eighty-Four, was published.

Orwell is also known for his insights about the political implications of the use of language. In the essay "Politics and the English Language", he decries the effects of cliche, bureaucratic euphemism, and academic jargon on literary styles, and ultimately on thought itself. Orwell's concern over the power of language to shape reality is also reflected in his invention of Newspeak, the official language of the imaginary country of Oceania in his novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. Newspeak is a variant of English in which vocabulary is strictly limited by government fiat. The goal is to make it increasingly difficult to express ideas that contradict the official line - with the final aim of making it impossible even to conceive such ideas. (cf. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis). A number of words and phrases that Orwell coined in Nineteen Eighty-Four have entered the standard vocabulary, such as "memory hole," (дырка в памяти) "Big Brother," (диктатор) "Room 101," (комната пыток) "doublethink," (двоемыслие) "thought police,"(полиция нравов) and "newspeak" (новояз - пропагандистский язык, предельно сужающий возможности выразить что-л., выходящее за пределы узкого круга навязанных носителю идей).

Fiction

· 1933 – Down and Out in Paris and London

· 1934 – Burmese Days

· 1935 – A Clergyman's Daughter

· 1936 – Keep the Aspidistra Flying

· 1939 – Coming Up for Air

· 1945 – Animal Farm

· 1949 – Nineteen Eighty-Four

Non-Fiction

· 1937 – The Road to Wigan Pier

· 1938 – Homage to Catalonia

In the book 1984 By George Orwell, Winston Smith, the protagonist, lives in a world where the government attempts to control the bodies and minds of the civilians. He and Julia, a woman he meets about mid-novel, together hold to the belief that the party can never take away their love towards each other, and hatred towards the omnipotent government. However, in the end, the two are proven wrong when they are captured, taken to the Ministry of Love, and physically and mentally tortured. The party succeeds in molding their minds and, after Winston comes back to his dull life, he professes his love towards Big Brother and betrays Julia by ceasing to love her. Many readers of Orwell's novel are angered by this ending because it shows them how easily they can let the government manipulate and control their minds which undermines their ability to think for themselves. However, this point is necessary to the work because it is the final contribution to Orwell's message of the dangers of a totalitarianism authority.

Персонажи: Winston Smith, Julia, O’Brien, Emmanuel Goldstein, secondary characters

Места: Oceania (Australia and New Zeland), Eurasia and Eastasia (China, India, Indonesia)

Министерства: Ministry of Love, Ministry of Peace, Ministry of Plenty, Ministry of Truth, Room 101

Группы: Outer and Inner Party, Proles, The Brotherhood, Thought Police

Концепты: Newspeak, Doublethink, Two + two = five, Thoughtcrime, Telescreen, Memory hole, Goldstein's book, Two Minutes Hate, Hate week, Prolefeed, Unperson, Ingsoc

7. Э. Берджес и его роман «Заводной апельсин».

DYSTOPIA - an imagined place or state in which everything is unpleasant or bad. The opposite of Utopia.

Anthony Burgess (1917 – 1993)

Satiric anti-utopia

A Clockwork Orange (1962) deals with violence, illustrated in a long line of incidents. A short (150-page) novel, it is written in the first person, narrated by Alex (anti-hero), a terrifyingly violent teenager. The atmosphere of killing, blood and assaults is so exacerbated, the characters’ language is so full of Russian influences (so many Russian words, adapted to English=слэнг Надсат; написаны латиницей).

What are the most important parts of the book are the ethic question of human essence and experimental language based on a fictional slang. The title is adapted from a piece of slang as well. It is a part of a Cockney expression as queer as a clockwork orange, which could, but not necessarily, be a sexual allusion to homosexuality.

The book has three untitled parts, of which each contains seven numerated chapters. Each chapter starts with the same utterance What is going to be then, eh? This repeats during the whole book many times and expresses the idea that, in spite of the effort not to be, Alex ́s and his friends ́ life is monotonous and empty as their parents ́. In fact, drugs and violence every day could become the same monotonous after some time as going to work.

The novel is set in unspecified time in future and in unspecified metropolitan city. A reader only knows that it happens after the Second World War and after 1960 ́s, which are the only two time references in the book. The indefinite setting emphasises timelessness, a possibility than it could happen at any time. Moreover, according to Burgess ́ attitude, this phase of human existence regularly repeats without end.

Characters are not described in detail. There are only few remarks. Other members of the band, Pete, Georgie and Dim, are described as a group with typical image inspired by the subculture of the fifties and sixties. The narrator, Alex, is also the protagonist. He is violent but witty, honestly, unlike his friends, and considers himself to be the leader of the group, which afterwards leads to a conflict with his three companions.

8. Творчество У.Голдинга.

Lord of the Flies is a novel by Nobel Prize-winning English author William Golding about a group of British boys stuck on an uninhabited island who try to govern themselves with disastrous results. Its stances on the already controversial subjects of human nature and individual welfare versus the common good.

The book indicates that it takes place in the midst of an unspecified nuclear war. Some of the marooned characters are ordinary students, while others arrive as a musical choir under an established leader. Most (with the exception of the choirboys) appear never to have encountered one another before. The book portrays their descent into savagery; left to themselves in a paradisiacal country, far from modern civilisation, the well-educated children regress to a primitive state.

At an allegorical level, the central theme is the conflicting human impulses toward civilization – living by rules, peacefully and in harmony – and toward the will to power. Themes include the tension between groupthink and individuality, between rational and emotional reactions, and between morality and immorality. How these play out, and how different people feel the influences of these, form a major subtext of Lord of the Flies.

The Lord of the Flies

The story itself is very simpl e. On the surface, it is just a regular adventure story. The basis is a simple adventure story of a group of boys who are trying to survive on the deserted island after the shipwreck, much like the story of Robinson Crusoe or the Treasure Island.

If we read it as a moral fable, the novel concentrates on human psyche. It examines psychological disintegration of characters; we have a group of boys who are seen as representatives of various patterns of behaviour, various instincts and various aspects of personality. All of them symbolize almost allegorically one of these aspects. Each boy character stands for a particular aspect of human behaviour.

Piggy stands for intelligence, reason and civilisation. Piggy, associated with pig is not negative quality, but just the opposite, because pigs are believed to be intelligent animals. Glasses he wears reinforce this symbolism; he is the character who analyses, looks under the surface of things.

Jack stands for evil and destructive instincts in human nature. He stands for the darkest drives within human beings. He is also very manipulative and charismatic person.

Ralph symbolises a natural born leader, politician, statesman, capable of either good or bad, depending on a context in which he is placed.

Simon is a saint – like figure. Simon stands for honesty and decency; that is what makes him a saint–like figure. The author wants to show that such decency and honesty in our world strikes us as something out of place, something naïve. He is a Jesus like figure.

The problem is that each of the characters lacks some vital element, and none of them is a complete person.

So, if we read the novel as the moral fable, the novel is not about the devil (Beelzebub – The Lord of the Flies), though the title suggests it, it is about an unconscious level of the human mind. The title and its suggestion to devil, suggests the dark, immoral, most primitive drive of the human mind, which is present in each of us and which is devastating when come to the surface.

Golding wants to show that some people are capable of acting morally, when put into extreme situations they prove able to resist evil and take moral action. Simon, being a saint like figure, proves capable to resist the instinct which he recognises in himself and admit the evil in himself. That is one of the most important points that Golding wants to make. In order to act morally, the first and the most important step is to recognise the evil in oneself and admit it. Denying evil is no answer. That is what makes Simon a saint like figure.

Other characters do not have the ability that Simon has, the ability of moral behaviour. All of the other characters are not capable of that, because they do not consciously admit the existence of the evil within themselves, they are unable to recognise it. Instead, they try to rationalise it, they try to find justification for it, they try to blame the other for it, they try to find the scapegoats. They find various kinds of excuses for what is not excusable.

When we look at Ralph, who in contrast to Simon, we find he lacks moral imagination. He is not capable of recognising his own motives, he is motivated by selfishness, at times, blind selfishness, a nd usually he places his personal interest above the interest of the community and puts everyone in danger. That is exactly what political leaders are often accused of, namely, of taking their own interest to be more important then the interest of the community.

This novel shows immense pessimism of its author. Establishing order in the society has much to do with individual recognition. That is what revolutions proved throughout the history. It one wants to reform the society from above, such attempt will likely fail, because the true change can only come from the individual. This is the point of awareness raising campaigns of today. Society is just the sum of individuals; one cannot change the society if individuals are not changed.

Individual reform requires one’s own awareness of one’s own evil deep inside, inclination towards savagery, inevitably leads to anarchy, chaos, deterioration. He has a very positive view of society, unlike most modernists.

To Golding, nature is opposed to culture, nature suggests instincts, animalistic drives, anarchic forces, while culture suggest civilisation, control of one’s instincts, society, laws of behaviour. Golding believed that society, no matter how faulty and imperfect, was the only true environment for men.

We see at the very beginning that when boys are physically put into the nature, they automatically try to establish some form of the society; unfortunately they fail in their ‘project’. According to Golding, the society ensures that the evil would be kept in check, that is what the government structure is there for.

Looking at another aspect of the novel, namely the novel as a social fable, the novel becomes a very harsh satire, anti utopian social satire.

What Golding presents in the novel is not an utopia, he tricks the reader at the beginning into believing it would turn out to be the utopia, but it turns out quite the opposite, the so-called dystopia. The society created by the boys on the island symbolises the society in general and the boys symbolise the human race in general.

One interpretation would also be that this island society stands for all primitive societies at the beginning of their development, without the organised structures of state apparatus..

The reason adults were shocked with what they have seen on the island is the result of their own inability to recognise this evil that resides in all human beings, children and adults alike. The ruin that the boys bring upon themselves is universal.

In the chapter Beast from the Water, Golding offers not only different elements of human psyche, but also various possible elements of social system.

In this case it is a very dark social satire. It shows how intelligence (Piggy) and common sense (Ralph) will always be overthrown by totalitarianism (Jack) or savagery (Roger). It is a very pessimistic view. According to Golding, every kind of system, including this parliamentarian system, seem to be inefficient. He also suggests that totalitarian leaders, such as Jack, obviously have some charismatic ability to appeal to the darkest in us.

The novel can be read as a dramatisation of an extreme political scenario, which shows how democracy, a responsible kind of a system, which is unfortunately boring to most people, can quickly be replaced by totalitarianism. The charismatic, the totalitarian, the evil, always seem to be more exciting to most people then the good.When we look at the context (1954) it must be brought in connection with disillusionment of the author after the war.

9. Творчество Дж.Фаулза.

Postmodernism is a term which describes the postmodernist movement in the arts, its set of cultural tendencies and associated cultural movements. It is in general the era that follows Modernism.^[1] It frequently serves as an ambiguous overarching term for skeptical interpretations of culture, literature, art,philosophy, economics, architecture, fiction, and literary criticism. It is often associated with deconstruction and post-structuralism because its usage as a term gained significant popularity at the same time as twentieth-century post-structural thought.

John Robert Fowles (/faʊls/; 31 March 1926 – 5 November 2005) was an English novelist, much influenced by both Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, and critically positioned between modernism and postmodernism.

The Collector is a 1963 novel by John Fowles. The Collector presents the struggle of a girl who has built her own reality through memories in order to survive forced seclusion. However, The Collector is more than just a thriller. The author’s way of narrating the story gives the reader deep insights into the minds of the two characters. On a psychological level, the book presents Fowles’s mastery in conveying profound meanings to the words he uses. If we analyze the collector’s actions and thoughts, we realize that he has a psychotic mind. Before kidnapping Miranda, while he was thoroughly preparing the details of his future actions, he tries to convince himself that he is not mad, that all his dreams and the imaginary stories he makes up in his mind about Miranda being his wife, are something normal, as long as there is “nothing nasty” in them.

Frederick is unable to adapt to the modern, the real world. He lives in a world of dreams and fantasies, unconsciously influenced by popular TV shows and movies. He believes that he can build a parallel world for himself and Miranda, where they can live happily together as husband and wife. As long as he thinks that he can make her fall in love with him, it doesn’t matter that Miranda is a prisoner living in a room in his secluded basement.

Роман рассказывает об одиноком молодом человеке, Фредерике Клегге, служащем клерком в муниципалитете. В свободное время юноша увлекается коллекционированием бабочек.

В первой части романа рассказ идёт от имени Клегга. Он увлечен девушкой по имени Миранда Грей, студенткой художественного училища. Но Клегг недостаточно образован, не интересуется ничем, кроме бабочек и у него не хватает смелости познакомиться с ней. Он восхищается Мирандой на расстоянии.

Однажды Клегг выигрывает большой приз на скачках. Это позволяет ему уволиться, отправить своих родственников за границу и купить дом в сельской глуши. В это же время он решает «присоединить» Миранду к своей коллекции. Похищение Клегг продумывает в мельчайших деталях и действительно, у него все получается очень профессионально. Клегг убежден, что, живя у него дома, девушка сможет полюбить его.

Вторая часть романа представляет собой «дневник» Миранды, во время заточения её в подвале дома, купленного Клеггом, вкупе с воспоминаниями девушки. Миранда уверена, что похищение имеет целью сексуальное насилие, но это оказывается неверно, и она скоро начинает немного жалеть своего похитителя, сравнивая его с Калибаном.

Миранда делает несколько попыток побега, но каждый раз Клегг останавливает её. Затем она пробует совратить его, но единственный результат, которого она добивается, это его озлобление.

В конце романа Миранда заболевает пневмонией и умирает. В третьей части повествование снова идёт от лица Клегга. После смерти Миранды он хочет покончить с жизнью, но найдя её дневник и узнав, что она никогда не любила его, решает повторить попытку с другой девушкой.

10.Магический реализм в творчестве С. Рашди.

Salman Rushdie, (1947) known as Mallun Rushdie in Islamic world, is a novelist andessayist and author of Midnight's Children (1981), which won the Booker Prize, and this later won the "Booker of Bookers". Rushdie was born in India, but lives in England.

Salman Rushdie is well-known for writing stories which use "magic realism", which is similar to surrealism. This means that things in his stories happen which may be magic or impossible, such as falling from an aeroplane and floating down as gently as paper^[1]. He often writes about India, and his stories often are set in different parts of the world.

Magic realism or magical realism is a genre where magic elements are a natural part in an otherwise mundane, realistic environment.^[1] Although it is most commonly used as a literary genre, magic realism also applies to film and the visual arts.

One example of magic realism occurs when a character in the story continues to be alive beyond the normal length of life and this is subtly depicted by the character being present throughout many generations. On the surface the story has no clear magical attributes and everything is conveyed in a real setting, but such a character breaks the rules of our real world. The author may give precise details of the real world such as the date of birth of a reference character and the army recruitment age, but such facts help to define an age for the fantastic character of the story that would turn out to be an abnormal occurrence like someone living for two hundred years.

11.Философские романы А. Мердок.

Dame Iris Murdoch DBE (15 July 1919 – 8 February 1999) was an Irish-born British author and philosopher, best known for her novels about good and evil, sexual relationships, morality, and the power of the unconscious. noted for her psychological novels that contain philosophical and comic elements.

Murdoch’s novels typically have convoluted plots in which innumerable characters representing different philosophical positions undergo kaleidoscopic changes in their relations with each other. Realistic observations of 20th-century life among middle-class professionals are interwoven with extraordinary incidents that partake of the macabre, the grotesque, and the wildly comic. The novels illustrate Murdoch’s conviction that although human beings think they are free to exercise rational control over their lives and behaviour, they are actually at the mercy of the unconscious mind, the determining effects of society at large, and other, more inhuman, forces. In addition to producing novels, Murdoch wrote plays, verse, and works of philosophy and literary criticism.

The Black Prince is Iris Murdoch's 15th novel, first published in 1973. The name of the novel alludes mainly to Hamlet.

Plot summary

The Black Prince is remarkable for the structure of its narrative, consisting of a central story bookended by forewords and post-scripts by characters within it. It largely consists of the description of a period in the later life of the main character, ageing London author Bradley Pearson, during which time he falls in love with the daughter of a friend and literary rival, Arnold Baffin. For years Bradley has had a tense but strong relationship with Arnold, regarding himself as having 'discovered' the younger writer. The tension is ostensibly over Bradley's distaste for Arnold's lack of proper literary credentials, though later the other characters claim this to be a matter of jealousy or the product of an Oedipus complex. Their closeness is made apparent from the start of the book, however, as Arnold telephones Bradley, worried that he has killed his wife, Rachel, in a domestic row. Bradley attends with another character, Francis Marloe, in tow.

Bradley then starts to get trapped in a growing dynamic of family, friends, and associates who collectively seem to thwart his attempts at achieving the isolation he feels necessary to create his 'masterpiece'.

During this time he falls in love with the Baffins' young daughter, Julian. Despite a private vow never to confess or seek to realise this love, he promptly blurts it out to Francis, thereafter abandoning self-control, embarking on a brief, intense affair, stealing Julian to a rented sea-side cottage, neglecting pressing needs at home. During his absence his depressed sister, Priscilla, commits suicide. While Bradley postpones returning, Arnold arrives, enraged, to collect his daughter, though leaves, apparently, without her, with a promise that she will return home the next day. Yet Julian vanishes in the night, in Bradley's mind (at least), is taken off and hidden against her will. The final action of the main section takes place at the Baffins' residence, where Bradley attends an incident parallel to the opening one: Rachel appears to have struck Arnold with a poker, killing him. Bradley's arrest, trial, and conviction for Arnold's murder are briefly described, bringing to a close Bradley's telling of the events.

12.Драматургия 2 пол. 20 века: С.Беккет, Г. Пинтер.

The plays of Harold Pinter and Samuel Beckett contributed much to their time in their use of staging and language. Their plays are focused more on the language that is use, or not used in Pinter's case, than on the plot itself. Each playwright incorporates a different style in the performance of his work as well as in the speech of his characters. Pinter tends to primarily use a pause between lines or thoughts while Beckett uses much more repetition in his work.

In Pinter's The Homecoming, he tries to portray the play as realistic. He claims that "what goes on in my plays is realistic, but what I'm doing is not realism" (Burkman 1971: 3). Much of what goes on in the play seems realistic - including the dialogue. However,
"The drama of Harold Pinter evolves in an atmosphere of mystery. While the surfaces of life are realistically detailed, the patterns below the surface are as obscure as the motives of the characters, the pause as prominent and suggestive as the dialogue. Despite the vivid naturalism of his characters' conversations, they behave very often more like figures in a dream than people with whom one can easily identify, at least on superficial levels" (Burkman 1971: 3).

Pinter's primary technique in dialogue is the "pause." He uses this pause between almost every line throughout The Homecoming. The pause "heightens the effect of noncommunication…" while repetitions and lack of logic of ordinary conversation that are omitted from realist plays give it a "distinctive combination of the banal and the strange" (Burkman 1971: 5). There are scenes throughout the play that exemplify this argument, such as:

Teddy: I've…just come back for a few days.
Lenny: Oh yes? Have you?
Pause.
Teddy: How's the old man?
Lenny: He's in the pink.
Pause.
Teddy: I've been keeping well.
Lenny: Oh, have you? Pause. Staying the night then are you?
Teddy: Yes. (Pinter 1991: 38)

In this short scene, one can see the awkwardness that the pause creates in a conversation. Pinter does not specify what goes on during these pauses and leaves it up to the director and actors to effectively communicate to the audience the awkward situation at hand.

It seems that as the play progresses the absurdity of it becomes more apparent. The conversation between Max and Lenny in the opening seems very realistic. Yet, it does have its moments of going off track whenever a pause appears in the script. It seems that every few lines or so the characters change the topic of conversation as well as their attitudes. Toward the final curtain the absurdity is clearer with Ruth having her sexual power over the men as well as their "business" proposal to her.

Beckett's Endgame is much more obvious in its absurdity than The Homecoming. His style can be described as a drama "of the nonspecific" (Murphy 1994: 43). The absurdity of the play stems from its stage setup as well as its dialogue and plot (or lack thereof). Like Pinter, Beckett uses a lot of pauses - although not nearly as much as Pinter does - between lines and repetition of lines, phrases, and questions.

The play opens with repetitive questions followed by Nagg's repetition. Beckett believed that "No language is so sophisticated as English. It is abstracted to death" (Eliopulos 1975: 58). There is also the ever-present dialogue without meaning or response. "The characters can speak to each other without communicating anything, for the experience has become incommunicable" (Eliopulos 1975: 53).

Much of the absurdity can be found in the characters themselves, even before they speak. Hamm is first seen sitting in an armchair, covered by a cloth on stage. There are also Hamm's parents, Nagg and Nell, who are introduced to the audience by coming out of garbage bins. More absurdity can be found in the actually setting of the play. Beckett does not specify what year, day, time, or place in which the play is occurring. There are references to there being no world outside; but then why are the characters still alive and where does their food come from if Hamm can't walk and Clov never leaves?

The audience is left to wonder what sort of world it is in which these characters are living. Nothing in the dialogue elaborates on what is occurring in the play; no questions about the setting or the characters are answered. The same conversations reappear throughout the duration, such as Hamm and Clov arguing about leaving the house. Every few pages in the text Clov states, "I'll leave you" in the middle of a conversation and Hamm will usually ignore it and continue with whatever he has been saying.

Beckett and Pinter both belong to an absurdist style of theatre however much their styles differ one another. Pinter's absurdity in The Homecoming is much more subtle and limited than that of Beckett's Endgame. Both playwrights focus primarily on the absurdity of language and communication - if that is what you can call it - than on the plot at hand.

Each play leaves much to the directors' and actors' discretion as to how to interpret the dialogue; do the playwrights themselves even know what goes on during the pauses and repetitions? Even with all the complications of the performance and interpretation, Beckett and Pinter have left an impact on modern theatre (more so in Europe than anywhere else). Their techniques and use of language can be seen in many more modern plays and playwrights.

13.Поэзия 20в. Ф.Ларкин, Э.Э. Каммингс

Philip Larkin's poems are full of resentment and anger for youth, innocence, and naivety. Larkin, through his poems, sets out to destroy each of these ideals one by one. Using imagery and carefully planned structure, Larkin is able to create an atmosphere in which he can effectively criticize and deconstruct the subject of innocence in relation to his current life experiences. While he was considered one of the finest poets in English history, he was also revered as a recluse who was set to live a life of isolation and misery. The Philip Larkin discovered after his death in 1985 was one of misogyny and racism, tainting many people's views of his work.

In the poem "Talking in Bed" Larkin speaks about darkness that creeps up, which I interpret to mean that the darkness, USA and other prominent world forces, are beginning to creep up on England because it is becoming a less dominant and more isolated place. The Poem ends with

"It becomes still more difficult to find
Words at once true and kind,
Or not untrue and not unkind." (Larkin Lines 10-12).

This quote displays how Larkin views relationships as well as how he views intimacy. Larkin is saying here that at this point in the relationship things have become mundane, making things that were once said out of emotion and truth become things that are now said out of necessity to lie in order to please the other in the relationship. It appears as if this critique could be leading towards the idea of needing to grow in intimacy, which it should not stop but continue to be alive and growing within a relationship. Once this intimacy stops, the relationship dies.

The real genius of the poem comes through Larkin's ability to criticize multiple facets of society andpoetry through he text. Not only is he stating that England is losing power within the world, and that intimacy is dying, but he is also making a clear statement about the conventions of poetry by using a clearly classical structure yet appropriating it to fit his message. He is taking the 3 line stanza form and using it to display the journey of the form of the poem by using faux flowery imagery in lines 4-6 when he states,

"Yet more and more time passes silently.
Outside, the wind's incomplete unrest
Builds and disperses clouds about the sky,"

This quote gives the reader language that would be common amongst poems from classical periods, poems that relied heavily on the flowery language to make their poem "art." Larkin is playing on this convention by leading the reader to believe this convention and then exposing them as a fool in the next stanza where he states,

"And dark towns heap up on the horizon.
None of this cares for us. Nothing shows why
At this unique distance from isolation" (Larkin 7-9).

The imagery shifts in to darkness and isolation, which is in stark contrast to what the reader was expecting from the poem. Larkin succeeds in making the reader become a fool to the convention of classical poetry.

Larkin, while appropriating the form of classical poetry, succeeded in conveying his intended message of experience over innocence and hostility over passivity and naivety. He conveyed the importance of the furthering isolation that was occurring for England, and what effect this was going to have on the country as a whole. The journals that were published after Larkin's death present a different picture of his as a person, but I would say that they generally give the same picture as the poetry does, only in a more extreme use of words.

Cummings's poetry often deals with themes of love and nature, as well as the relationship of the individual to the masses and to the world. His poems are also often rife with satire.

While his poetic forms and themes share an affinity with the romantic tradition, Cummings's work universally shows a particular idiosyncrasy of syntax, or way of arranging individual words into larger phrases and sentences. Many of his most striking poems do not involve any typographical or punctuation innovations at all, but purely syntactic ones.

Эдвард Эстлин Каммингс (англ. Edward Estlin Cummings; 14 октября 1894, Кембридж, Массачусетс — 3 сентября 1962, Норт-Конвей, Нью-Гэмпшир) — американский поэт, писатель, художник, драматург. Принято считать, что Каммингс предпочитал писать свою фамилию и инициалы с маленькой буквы (как e.e.cummings), однако не существует никаких документальных подтверждений этого факта.

В своей поэтической работе Каммингс проводил радикальные эксперименты с формой, пунктуацией, синтаксисом и правописанием. В некоторых его стихах заглавные буквы не используются; строки, фразы и даже отдельные слова часто прерываются в самых неожиданных местах; знаки препинания или отсутствуют, или расставлены странным образом. Кроме того, Каммингс зачастую нарушал свойственный английскому языку порядок следования слов в предложении. Многие его произведения можно понять только при чтении с листа, но не на слух.

Несмотря на склонность к формальным экспериментам, немалая часть стихов Каммингса носит традиционный характер (в частности, Каммингс является автором большого количества сонетов). В зрелом возрасте Каммингс часто подвергался критике за самоповторы и приверженность раз и навсегда выработанному стилю. Несмотря на это, его простой язык, чувство юмора и эксплуатация таких тем, как секс и война, снискали ему огромную популярность, особенно среди молодёжи. В начале своей карьеры Каммингс находился под заметным влиянием авангардных писателей и поэтов (Гертруда Стайн, Эзра Паунд, Эми Лоуэлл и другие). Во время визитов в Париж он открыл для себя дадаизм и сюрреализм, которые также повлияли на его творчество.

Несмотря на увлечение поэзией модернизма, Каммингс написал немало стихов, по форме близких к классическим сонетам. Некоторые из его произведений отличаются использованием необычной типографики. В таких стихах слова, обрывки слов, скобки и другие знаки препинания разбросаны по всему листу. Занимаясь живописью, Каммингс хорошо понимал, что от способа визуальной подачи стихотворения во многом зависят впечатления читателя, и использовал типографику для того, чтобы «рисовать картины» в некоторых из своих произведений.

Первый сборник стихов Каммингса — «Тюльпаны и дымоходы» (Tulips and Chimneys, 1923) — впервые познакомил публику с «фирменным стилем» поэта, который характеризуется намеренно искажённой грамматикой и пунктуацией, как, например, в стихотворении «a leaf falls loneliness»:

l(a

le
af
fa

ll

s)
one
l

iness

Некоторые из самых известных стихов Каммингса не отличаются необычной типографикой, но, несмотря на это, несут на себе отпечаток его неповторимого стиля. Каммингс очень часто произвольно изменял принятый в английском языке порядок слов в предложении. В результате на свет появлялись такие знаменитые строки, как «why must itself up every of a park…» или «they sowed their isn’t». В некоторых стихах Каммингс намеренно искажает правописание английских слов. Кроме того, он весьма изобретательно использует составные слова, например, «mud-luscious» («грязно-сладкий»).

Многие стихи Каммингса имеют острую социальную окраску и высмеивают недостатки общественного устройства, но при этом поэт не был чужд романтизма: очень часто в его стихах воспеваются любовь, дружба и иные формы человеческих отношений.

Каммингса часто обвиняли в том, что, выработав уникальный стиль, он остановился в своём творческом развитии. Тем не менее, критики отмечают, что, несмотря на застой в техническом плане, содержание стихов Каммингса со временем становилось всё более значительным.

14.История Великобритании в творчестве Дж.Барнса, П.Акройда.

Julian Patrick Barnes (born 19 January 1946) is a contemporary English writer. Barnes won the Man Booker Prize for his book The Sense of an Ending (2011), and three of his earlier books had been shortlisted for the Booker Prize: Flaubert's Parrot (1984), England, England (1998), and Arthur & George (2005). He has also written crime fiction under the pseudonym Dan Kavanagh (his late wife's surname), though has published nothing under that name for more than twenty-five years. In addition to novels, Barnes has published collections of essays and short stories. He was selected as the recipient of the ^[2] 2011 David Cohen Prize for Literature.

England, England is a satirical, postmodern novel by Julian Barnes, published and shortlisted for the Booker Prize in 1998. While researchers have also pointed out the novel's characteristic dystopian and farcical elements,^[2] Barnes himself described the novel as a 'semi-farce'.^[3]

England, England broaches the idea of replicating England in a theme park on the Isle of Wight. It calls into question ideas of national identity,invented traditions, the creations of myths and the authenticity of history and memory.^[4] The novel thereby relates to Baudrillard's concept of simulacra and negotiates the meaning of replicas in a postmodern age.

Peter Ackroyd (born 5 October 1949) is an English biographer, novelist, and critic with a particular interest in the history and culture of London. For his novels about English history and culture and his biographies of, among others, Charles Dickens, T. S. Eliot and Sir Thomas More he won the Somerset Maugham Award and two Whitbread Awards. He is noted for the volume of work he has produced, the range of styles therein, his skill at assuming different voices and the depth of his research.

Major Works

Most of Ackroyd's prodigious body of work resides in the realm of historiographic metafiction—an experimental, postmodern technique that blurs distinctions between imagination and historical fact. In particular, Ackroyd's prose explores the convergence of past and present time, and human lives associated with a place—generally London—through successive centuries. In The Great Fire of London (1982) Ackroyd began the practice of merging fact and imagination and traversing time through characters and plot. A skilled mimic, Ackroyd identifies strongly with various literary figures. This is especially evident in The Last Testament of Oscar Wilde, a novel purporting to be Wilde's autobiographical account of the last months of his life in exile in Paris. Ackroyd captures Wilde's voice, wit, and persona, offering insight into the author's psyche.

Ackroyd's Chatterton posits that Thomas Chatterton, the famed eighteenth-century faker of medieval texts, did not commit suicide at age seventeen; rather he fabricated his own death and survived to continue his fraudulent production of antique manuscripts. Ackroyd plays with the ideas of fraud and plagiarism, littering the plot with deceptions at every turn. In the course of the narration, Ackroyd exploits opportunities to examine themes important to him: the cyclical nature of history, the cross-genre aesthetic, and real and imagined people who both transform and are connected through time.

США

15.Просветительская литература США 18 века.

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