Interpretation in Terms of Two-Mode Models

The preceding sections related serotonergic function to cognitive processing of emotional stimuli, overt behaviors such as impulsiveness and aggression, disorders involving poor impulse control, and a range of personality traits. This evidence appears amenable to interpretation in terms of two-mode models, as follows.

Relations between low serotonergic function and hostile and depressive trait tendencies can be seen as reflecting frequent intrusion of strong emotions; as noted earlier, this has been argued to characterize reflexive-mode processing. Frequent strong emotions would also be consistent with brain mechanisms reviewed earlier that yield a relative lack of executive control over emotional reactions. Relations between low serotonergic function and impulsive aggression (or other problematic impulsive actions) appear to reflect a lack of effortful control by the deliberative system over spontaneous action (see also Wilkowski & Robinson, 2008, regarding the role of effortful control in aggression).

Relations between serotonergic function and agreeableness (found frequently) and conscientious and related qualities (found less frequently) both concern qualities of personality that are addressed by two-mode models. Both sets of associations imply that high serotonergic functioning permits a relatively broader perspective on behavioral decisions—broader than the impulsive grabbing of incentives or fleeing from threats. Conscientiousness entails a broadened temporal perspective: taking future contingencies into account in one’s actions. Agreeableness entails a broadened social perspective: taking the needs of others into account in one’s actions. Indeed, consistent with the view that these traits reflect operation of the reflective mode, some argue that both of these traits have their temperamental origins in effortful control (Ahadi & Rothbart, 1994; Caspi & Shiner, 2006; Jensen-Campbell et al., 2002).

In further support of the idea that taking future contingencies into account entails effortful control, trait self-control (a closely related concept) has been linked to higher grades (Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004; Wolfe & Johnson, 1995), less procrastination (Steel, 2007), and less criminality (Krueger, 2002). In further support of the idea that taking into account the needs of others entails effortful control, trait self-control has been linked to accommodative behaviors in intimate relationships, which helps to sustain those relationships (Finkel & Campbell, 2001), an effect that held even when controlling for level of commitment to the relationship. Similarly, trait self-control has been linked to relationship satisfaction and relationship longevity among both romantic partners and best friends (Vohs, Lasaleta, & Fennis, in press).

As noted earlier, Hennig et al. (2005) suggested that the low serotonergic pattern resembles psychoticism, a trait characterized by impulsive social disconnection. Impulsive social disconnection seems an apt characterization of the combination of low agreeableness and low conscientiousness, both of which have been linked to psychopathy (Derefinko & Lynam, 2006).

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