Theories of the Press

As a result of certain changes to the basic value system operating in the public sector, public officials and political representatives often find themselves in hazy areas, where it is no longer clearwhatconstitutes proper behaviour. Of course, there are also cases of deliberate wrongdoing in spite of clear guidance through legal regulations orstandards of conduct.

In broad terms corruption is the misuse of public office for private gain that either not performing duties it was originally intended to, or performing them in an improper way. The known forms or aspects of corruption are: cronyism, bribery, nepotism, rent seeking, lobbying without public scrutiny, graft, patronage, embezzlement, kickback, kleptocracy.

Forms of corruption:

1) Bribery requires two participants: one to give the bribe, and one to take it. Bribes may be demanded in order for an official to do something he is already paid to do. They may also be demanded in order to bypass laws and regulations.

2) Graft - large gift. Requires that the official gains something of value, not part of his official pay, when doing his work.

3) Patronage - favoring supporters It can be seen as corruption if this means that incompetent persons, as a payment for supporting the regime, are selected before more able ones.

4) Nepotism - favoring relatives

5) Cronyism - favoring personal friends

6) Embezzlement - outright theft of entrusted funds. It is a misappropriation of property.

7) Lobbying without public scrutiny

8) Kickback - portion of the sum the company received

9) Kleptocracy – - a corrupt dictatorship - when the highest echelons of the governments also take advantage of corruption or embezzlement from the state's treasury

10) Rent seeking (вымогательство) – extortion

Corruption is Principally a Governance Issue, because the standards and conduct of public representatives and officials significantly affect the standing in which they are held. This in turn affects the confidence and respect in which governmental systems are held.

A strategy against corruption should look for ways to ensure accountability, limit and clarify discretion, and increase transparency and awareness of unethical behaviour. For example, many countries have also taken measuresto protect whistle-blowers and to encourage staff to report wrongdoing.

** General methods of fighting corruption - There is no panacea from corruption that guarantees that it would be eliminated at all.

1)First step is to tighten up the laws and their implementation, thereby increasing the risk of punishment in case of wrongdoings.

2)The second step is to create the economic mechanisms that will allow officials to increase their income without breaking the rules and laws.

3)The third step is to increase the role of markets and competition, thus reducing the size of the potential gains from corruption. It includes transparent mechanisms of biddings that will exclude the probability of kickbacks.

4)The next step is to clarify duties and performance standards of officials and at the same time to create oversight bodies that will operate autonomously and independently and will protect whistle blowers, encouraging staff to report wrongdoings.

5)At the same time it is very important to ensure accountability at the all levels of government and transparency of decision-making process in order to strengthen the bond of trust between the community and officials and to increase citizen’s participation and inclusiveness.

6)A good way of doing this is to create e-government that will provide opportunity to get services and information without any contact between citizens and officials and will reduce the possibility of giving or receiving bribes or grafts.

6. Transparency is a Cornerstone of Good Governance

At the heart of good democracy is a bond of trust between the community and the people who represent them – a bond which depends greatly on the conduct of those people. The public have a right to expect the highest standards of behaviour from their representatives and those responsible for the delivery of public services.

Governance describes the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented). Hereby, public institutions conduct public affairs, manage public resources, and guarantee the realization of human rights. Good governance accomplishes this in a manner essentially free of abuse and corruption, and with a due regard for the rule of law.

Good governance can be understood as a set of 8 major characteristics: participation, rule of law, transparency, responsiveness, consensus, equity and inclusiveness, effectiveness and efficiency, accountability.

Transparency - sharing information and acting in an open manner. Transparent systems have clear procedures for public decision-making and open channels of communication between stakeholders and officials

The inability of the government to provide the high level of transparency in the public sector has some negative effects:

Firstly, it typically increases the time required to complete routine interactions

Secondly, the lack of transparency makes democratic accountability nearly impossible

Thirdly, low transparency can lead to increased corruption and cynicism about a government on the part of its citizens as well as on the part of potential external allies and investors

**There is general agreement that ethics management should always involve both control-oriented and prevention-oriented mechanisms. A strategy against corruption should look for ways to ensure accountability, limit and clarify discretion, and increase transparency and awareness of unethical behaviour.

Surveys showed that control-oriented mechanisms, such as independent financial and legal scrutiny, were considered to be the most important mechanisms for combating corruption. Many countries have also taken measuresto protect whistle-blowers and to encourage staff to report wrongdoing. Much less common are participatory approaches to counter unethical behaviour by involving citizens in the policing of public activity.

** General methods of fighting corruption - There is no panacea from corruption that guarantees that it would be eliminated at all.

1)First step is to tighten up the laws and their implementation, thereby increasing the risk of punishment in case of wrongdoings.

2)The second step is to create the economic mechanisms that will allow officials to increase their income without breaking the rules and laws.

3)The third step is to increase the role of markets and competition, thus reducing the size of the potential gains from corruption. It includes transparent mechanisms of biddings that will exclude the probability of kickbacks.

4)The next step is to clarify duties and performance standards of officials and at the same time to create oversight bodies that will operate autonomously and independently and will protect whistle blowers, encouraging staff to report wrongdoings.

5)At the same time it is very important to ensure accountability at the all levels of government and transparency of decision-making process in order to strengthen the bond of trust between the community and officials and to increase citizen’s participation and inclusiveness.

6)A good way of doing this is to create e-government that will provide opportunity to get services and information without any contact between citizens and officials and will reduce the possibility of giving or receiving bribes or grafts.

7. Government Ethics and Effective Public Administration

The standards and conduct of public representatives and officials significantly affect the standing in which they are held. This in turn affects the confidence and respect in which governmental systems are held. High standards of conduct and public confidence go hand in hand. At the heart of good democracy is a bond of trust between the community and the people who represent them – a bond which depends greatly on the conduct of those people. The public have a right to expect the highest standards of behaviour from their representatives and those responsible for the delivery of public services.

Governance describes the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented). Hereby, public institutions conduct public affairs, manage public resources, and guarantee the realization of human rights. Good governance accomplishes this in a manner essentially free of abuse and corruption, and with a due regard for the rule of law. Good governance can be understood as a set of 8 major characteristics: participation, rule of law, transparency, responsiveness, consensus, equity and inclusiveness, effectiveness and efficiency, accountability.

As a result of certain changes to the basic value system operating in the public sector, public officials and political representatives often find themselves in hazy areas, where it is no longer clear what constitutes proper behaviour. Such situation made popular the phenomenum of ethic management and Codes of ethics.

There is general agreement that ethics management should always involve both control-oriented and prevention-oriented mechanisms. A strategy against corruption should look for ways to ensure accountability, limit and clarify discretion, and increase transparency and awareness of unethical behaviour.

Surveys showed that control-oriented mechanisms, such as independent financial and legal scrutiny, were considered to be the most important mechanisms for combating corruption. Many countries have also taken measures to protect whistle-blowers and to encourage staff to report wrongdoing. Much less common are participatory approaches to counter unethical behaviour by involving citizens in the policing of public activity

Some argue that the following conditions are favorable for corruption:

- Information deficits.

- Lack of government transparency.

- Lacking freedom of information legislation.

- Contempt for or negligence of exercising freedom of speech and freedom of the press.

- Weak accounting practices, including lack of timely financial management.

- Lack of measurement of corruption.

- Lacking control over and accountability of the government.

- Democracy absent or dysfunctional.

- Lacking civic society and non-governmental organizations which monitor the government.

- Weak rule of law.

- Weak legal profession.

- Weak judicial independence.

- Lacking protection of whistleblowers.

** General methods of fighting corruption

1)First step is to tighten up the laws and their implementation, thereby increasing the risk of punishment in case of wrongdoings.

2)The second step is to create the economic mechanisms that will allow officials to increase their income without breaking the rules and laws.

3)The third step is to increase the role of markets and competition, thus reducing the size of the potential gains from corruption. It includes transparent mechanisms of biddings that will exclude the probability of kickbacks.

4)The next step is to clarify duties and performance standards of officials and at the same time to create oversight bodies that will operate autonomously and independently and will protect whistle blowers, encouraging staff to report wrongdoings.

5)At the same time it is very important to ensure accountability at the all levels of government and transparency of decision-making process in order to strengthen the bond of trust between the community and officials and to increase citizen’s participation and inclusiveness.

6)A good way of doing this is to create e-government that will provide opportunity to get services and information without any contact between citizens and officials and will reduce the possibility of giving or receiving bribes or grafts.

8. The Role of Non-Profits in the Modern World

Non-profit organziations are organizations that do not have an objective of making profit and that exist in order to serve the public interests and to increase the well-being of humanity. In other words, non-profit organizaions doesn't distribute profit or any other benefits from its actvity to its stakeholders. there are at least three features that connect these widely divergent entities:

they do not coerce participation; The first important characteristic of non-profit organization is that they do not coerce participation. It means that citizens cannot be compelled by nonprofit organizations to give their time or money in support of any collective goal. Thus the flow of resources to a nonprofit depends entirely on the quality and relevance of its mission and its capacity to deliver value.

they operate without distributing profits to stakeholders; I have already mentioned the second distinguishing feature of nonprofits that signifies that these organizations operate without distributing profits to stakeholders. As I have noticed above it means that nonprofits must use all residual funds for the advancement of the organization's mission and for organization and programsin order to act for the good of the public.

they exist without simple and clear lines of ownership and accountability. -And the last but not the least most important characteristics if nonprofits is that they exist without simple and clear lines of ownership and accountability.Nonprofits must serve many masters as they combine funding from multiple sources but nobody is ultimately able to exert complete control over these organizations. So, there are no conflicts of interest that may prevent nonprofits to operate for the well being of the humankind.

Taken together, these three features might make nonprofit and voluntary organizations appear weak, inefficient, and directionless, but in reality, these structural features give these entities a set of unique advantages that position them to perform important societal functions neither government nor the market is able to match.

Nonprofit sector aims to protect and realize the interests of citizens, acting independently of the state and commercial structures.

Dissatisfied with their requests, citizens may apply to non-profit organizations (NGOs) that are trying to make up for shortage of certain goods and services, or to provide more meaningful and influential representation of various social groups, realizing thereby direct democracy mechanisms and forcing other sectors, particularly public efficiently and effectively act in the public interest.

There is a huge number of non-profit organization around the world. Just imagine, there are about 1.8 million nonprofits registred in the USA. The purpose of non-profits may be charitable, educational, scientific or religious but in any case the aim of nonprofits is to act for the good of the public. In order to achieve these goal nonprofits are implementing a number of programs in such areas as public health protection and assistance for people in need of treatment, environmental protection, legal assistance, information technology distribution, social assistance, educational granting and so on. All these programs reflect an effort or inclination to increase the well-being of humankind.

Non-profitorganizationscontribute tosocialstability, help to achievea newquality of economic growthand development ofinnovativetechnologies, since they are active buyers ofgoods andserviceswhat in its turnenhancesbusinessingeneral, promotescompetitionbetween different sectorsof the economy.

Example: international non-governmental organization working in the fields relating to the conservation, research and restoration of the environment.

9. The Fundamental Features of the Non-Profit Sector

There are at least three features that connect these widely divergent entities: (1) they do not coerce participation; (2) they operate without distributing profits to stakeholders; and (3) they exist without simple and clear lines of ownership and accountability. Taken together, these structural features give these entities a set of unique advantages that position them to perform important societal functions neither government nor the market is able to match.

Perhaps the most fundamental of the three features is the sector's noncoercive nature. Citizens cannot be compelled by nonprofit organizations to give their time or money in support of any collective goal. This means that, in principle at least, nonprofits must draw on a large reservoir of good will. This noncoercive character is also what most starkly differentiates the sector from government, which can levy taxes, imprison violators of the law, and regulate behavior in myriad ways. Free choice is the coin of the realm: nonprofit and voluntary organizations demand nothing. The flow of resources to a nonprofit depends entirely on the quality and relevance of its mission and its capacity to deliver value.

The second feature of nonprofit and voluntary organizations - nonprofit and voluntary organizations cannot make such distributions to outside parties. Rather, they must use all residual funds for the advancement of the organization's mission. By retaining residuals rather than passing them on to investors, nonprofit organizations seek to reassure clients and donors that their mission takes precedence over the financial remuneration of any interested parties. The nondistribution constraint has been seen as a tool that nonprofits can use to capitalize on failures in the market.

The third feature of nonprofit and voluntary organizations is that they have unclear lines of ownership and accountability. Nonprofit and voluntary organizations must serve many masters, none of which is ultimately able to exert complete control over these organizations. Donors, clients, board members, workers, and local communities all have stakes, claims, or interests in nonprofit and voluntary organizations. Yet none of these parties can be clearly identified as the key ownership group.

Often, however, the lines of ownership and accountability are rendered more complex by the fact that many nonprofit organizations combine funding from multiple sources—foundations, corporations, and government—with earned income, making it hard to point to any particular party as the key stakeholder to whom these special institutions must answer. In the end, nonprofit and voluntary organizations are authorized to act in the public interest by the communities in which they operate.

10. Interaction Between the Media and Society

In relation to society the media should perform two main functions:

a) To provide society necessary and sufficient information;

b) adequately reflect public opinion.

Press, radio and television can express the interests of the state, party, social group, political leader, major financial and economic systems, the society as a whole. In a society must necessarily exist state media. Without it, the state can not even fulfill its constitutional duty to publish laws.

In a democratic society must be non-state media. They must in some sense resist state power, to serve as its constant criticism and official opponent. The public needs to be informed about the activities of government agencies and officials

** Theories of the Press

Since the 16^th century, scholars and philosophers have attempted to describe the relationship between the government and the mass media and its implications with the regard to freedom and control. Over the years, various theories of the press have developed to articulate and explain this relationship.

The authoritarian theory arose in 16^th century England about the same time as the introduction of the printing press in that country. Under the authoritarian theory, the prevailing belief was that the ruling elite should guide the masses, whose intellectual ability was held in low esteem. Public dissent and criticism were considered harmful to both the government and the people and were not tolerated. Authoritarians used various devices to force compliance of the press, including licensing, censorship of material before publication, the granting of exclusive printing rights to favoured elements of the press, and the swift, harsh punishment of government critics.

The libertarian theory is directly opposed to authoritarianism. Libertarians assume that human being are rational and capable of making their own decisions and that governments exist to serve the individual. Libertarians believe that the common citizen has a right to hear all sides of an issue to distinguish truth from falsehood. the government can best serve the people by not interfering with the media. In short, the press must be free from control.

The social responsibility theory (also referred to as the Western concept) incorporates part of the original libertarian approach but introduces some new elements as well. This approach holds that the press has a right to criticize government and other institutions, but it also has a responsibility to society’s needs and interests. The press does not have the freedom to do as it pleases; it is obligated to respond to society’s requirements. The government may involve itself in media operations by issuing regulations if the public interest is not being adequately served.

The communist theory suggests that the media are “owned” by the people as represented by the state. Their purpose is to support the Marxist system and to achieve the goals of the state as expressed through the Communist Party. Recent history has shown the communist approach to the press works best in a closed society where information is tightly controlled by the government. Once information is available from competing source, people give little credibility to the official media.

A more recent formulation is the developmental theory. In this ideology, the government mobilizes the media to serve national goals in economic and social development. Information is considered a scarce natural resource and must be carefully managed by the government to achieve national goals. Some of the goals the media are expected to help achieve include political integration, literacy, economic self-sufficiency, and the eradication of disease.

11. The Relationship Between the Media and the Government

Theories of the Press

Since the 16^th century, scholars and philosophers have attempted to describe the relationship between the government and the mass media and its implications with the regard to freedom and control. Over the years, various theories of the press have developed to articulate and explain this relationship.

The authoritarian theory arose in 16^th century England about the same time as the introduction of the printing press in that country. Under the authoritarian theory, the prevailing belief was that the ruling elite should guide the masses, whose intellectual ability was held in low esteem. Public dissent and criticism were considered harmful to both the government and the people and were not tolerated. Authoritarians used various devices to force compliance of the press, including licensing, censorship of material before publication, the granting of exclusive printing rights to favoured elements of the press, and the swift, harsh punishment of government critics.

The libertarian theory is directly opposed to authoritarianism. Libertarians assume that human being are rational and capable of making their own decisions and that governments exist to serve the individual. Libertarians believe that the common citizen has a right to hear all sides of an issue to distinguish truth from falsehood. the government can best serve the people by not interfering with the media. In short, the press must be free from control.

The social responsibility theory (also referred to as the Western concept) incorporates part of the original libertarian approach but introduces some new elements as well. This approach holds that the press has a right to criticize government and other institutions, but it also has a responsibility to society’s needs and interests. The press does not have the freedom to do as it pleases; it is obligated to respond to society’s requirements. The government may involve itself in media operations by issuing regulations if the public interest is not being adequately served.

The communist theory suggests that the media are “owned” by the people as represented by the state. Their purpose is to support the Marxist system and to achieve the goals of the state as expressed through the Communist Party. Recent history has shown the communist approach to the press works best in a closed society where information is tightly controlled by the government. Once information is available from competing source, people give little credibility to the official media.

A more recent formulation is the developmental theory. In this ideology, the government mobilizes the media to serve national goals in economic and social development. Information is considered a scarce natural resource and must be carefully managed by the government to achieve national goals. Some of the goals the media are expected to help achieve include political integration, literacy, economic self-sufficiency, and the eradication of disease.

12. How the News is Presented

The way the media cover news depends on its functions.

1) inform (a teacher function)

2) surveillance (a watcher function)

3) service the economic system

4) hold society together (act as sort of a cultural glue)

5) entertain

6) act as a community forum (media equivalent of town hall meeting or group discussion)

7) set the agenda

8) service the political system.

The proportion of functions in its turn is dependent on the theory of the press, that is prevailing in the country.

Under the authoritarian regime the press serves the interests of the government. As authoritarians use various devices to force compliance of the press, including licensing, censorship of material before publication, the granting of exclusive printing rights to favour elements of the press, and the swift, harsh punishment of government critics.

According to libertarian theory the press is free from control. Since any government restriction on the expression of ideas infringes (ущемляет) upon the rights of a citizen, the government can best serve the people by not interfering with the media.

The social responsibility theory holds that the press has a right to criticize government and other institutions, but it also has a responsibility to society’s needs and interests. The press does not have the freedom to do as it pleases; it is obligated to respond to society’s requirements. The government may involve itself in media operations by issuing regulations if the public interest is not being adequately served.

Developmental theory advocates suggest that the government mobilizes the media to serve national goals in economic and social development. Information is considered a scarce natural resource and must be carefully managed by the government to achieve national goals.

13. Think Tanks as Policy Actors in Democratic Societies

TT – public policy research institutes, the type of invention in government that try to reconcile the needs of citizens with the realities of politics and limited resources.

Public policy guru Yehezkel Dror defines think tanks as " islands of excellence applying full-time interdisciplinary scientific thinking to the in-depth improvement of policymaking, as a main bridge between power and knowledge." As this definition emphasizes, think tanks strengthen the decision-making capacity of government by transmitting policy-relevant information from a variety of sources to the ears and eyes of policymakers. Their work directly benefits policymakers by casting light on problems as well as alternative solutions.

Equally important is the vital contribution which think tanks make to democratic society. They inspire public debate and add their high-quality research and analysis to the voice of the people, boosting their influence on the policies that shape their lives.

Nonetheless, citizens of democratic society all benefit from the contribution think tanks make to improving public policy. Think tanks make policymaking less political. By providing policymakers with information backed up by legitimate research, think tanks allow leaders to make enlighteneddecisions. Using empirical studies, opinion surveys, cost-benefit analysis and various forecasting techniques, think tanks develop objective proposals for the improvement of public policy. This is a service not only to policymakers but to society as a whole.

Above all, think tanks are predicatedon the notion that ideas count. To maximize the effectiveness of any government that is directly accountable to its citizens, ideas must emerge from all sectors of society, whether private or public. Without this type of input, policymakers must bear the full burden of designing policies that make the best use of existing conditions and meet the needs of all relevant parties.

14. Think Tanks are Idea Generators and Research Brokers

TT – public policy research institutes, the type of invention in government that try to reconcile the needs of citizens with the realities of politics and limited resources.

Public policy guru Yehezkel Dror defines think tanks as " islands of excellence applying full-time interdisciplinary scientific thinking to the in-depth improvement of policymaking, as a main bridge between power and knowledge." As this definition emphasizes, think tanks strengthen the decision-making capacity of government by transmitting policy-relevant information from a variety of sources to the ears and eyes of policymakers. Their work directly benefits policymakers by casting light on problems as well as alternative solutions.

Think tanks use a broad range of approaches to the improvement of policymaking, some direct, others more indirect. Advocacy-oriented groups represent one distinctive approach. These think tanks make recommendations or offer criticism of existing policies. Once proposals are made, they are typically pursued by think tank staff members until a decision is reached. At the other end of the spectrum are the education-orientedgroups. Their approach to influencing public policy uses means such as conferences and workshops, books and articles, and interaction with the media. These activities do not aim to affect specific policy decisions, but rather guide scholarly debate and shape the perceptions of future leaders.

By providing policymakers with information backed up by legitimate research, think tanks allow leaders to make enlighteneddecisions. Using empirical studies, opinion surveys, cost-benefit analysis and various forecasting techniques, think tanks develop objective proposals for the improvement of public policy. This is a service not only to policymakers but to society as a whole.

15. Think Tanks Perform the Intermediary Role Between “Power” and “Knowledge”

TT – public policy research institutes, the type of invention in government that try to reconcile the needs of citizens with the realities of politics and limited resources.

Public policy guru Yehezkel Dror defines think tanks as "islands of excellence applying full-time interdisciplinary scientific thinking to the in-depth improvement of policymaking, as a main bridge between power and knowledge." As this definition emphasizes, think tanks strengthen the decision-making capacity of government by transmitting policy-relevant information from a variety of sources to the ears and eyes of policymakers.

With their intermediary role between "power" and "knowledge," think tanks come into contact with a number of different constituencies.

1) Government:

- Benefits policymakers by casting light on problems as well as alternative solutions

- Education and Training. Through conferences, workshops and seminars, think tanks can offer policymakers the opportunity to build their knowledge in key issue areas.

- Draft Legislation. TT offer a capacity to prepare documents in appropriate legal format, they are sometimes asked to draft legislation.

- Human Resources. Think tanks offer governments a unique opportunity to recruit individuals who are already skilled in policy research

2) Public:

- communicate the desires of citizens to policymakers

- inform the people about the activities of government.

- By reaching out to television, radio, newsprint, academia and elsewhere, think tanks are able to educate people on important contemporary issues. With this information, citizens are better equipped to lobby for — or against — policies under debate.

3) Media:

- media representatives often ask think tanks for clear and concise explanations of major policy issues

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