English literature of the XIV c.

XIV с. in the English history was a period of deep changes in all the spheres of economic and social life. That was an age of the forming of the English nation; people became conscious of themselves in bloody fights. New economic and politic relations, perennial wars, powerful revolts, devastating epidemics – this all changed social face of the country. Cultural development of England took other way. A rapid increase of towns in XIII с. In the beginning of the Norman period in England there were up to 80 towns with 5% of population, till the end of the XIII c. this number doubled, the number of citizens increased many times. In the XIV c. city growth even more. In 1377 city population of England was about 169000 = 12% of total. These cities, except some (in 1377 35-40000 in London e.g.), were quite small. Growth of commodity-money relations changed character of villages,; agricultural reorganization of England led to sharpening of class fight and resulted in peasants’ revolts; decay of the guild system increased in cities, as well as the number of hired employees and their exploitation. Since the beg. of the XIV c. inner trade became more important factor of the household life, and the development of navigation simplified trade of England with other countries. The main exported product became in the XIII c. wool, needed at the cloth factories of continent, especially Flanders. Since XIII c. one can notice the beginning of enclosure, worsening of the situation of the serf. The most important reason for changes in English villages – increase of rent.

"Black death" visited England in 1340, brought from the East. II epidemics, 1348, was more severe; it visited France, Italy. Plague raged more than year, especially in the summer of 1349 and left only in 1351. Chronicles of the XIV c. state, that it killed 9 10s of population, historians - 1 third. According to modern evidence, the villains suffered the most. "Black death" sharpened economic crisis. The number of farming employees decreased, lack of working hands and reduction of profits of landowner reflected on the salaries and provoked issuing of unpleasant laws at time of Edward III and Richard II. One of the I laws was "Statute of Labourers" in 1349. War with France, demanding increase of taxes and unsettling trade, enforced general rumblings; in the II half of c. it led to the peasants revolt and appearance of heresies, which were just forms of social protest to the feudalism. These forms in England were closely connected; we find "heretic" John Boll as 1 of the chiefs of the revolt; lollards, caught in the II half XIV c. By social-religious fermentation, were wide popular among peasants and city dwellers.

In May of 1381 different revolts were raised simultaneously in different parts of England, reason for which was a poll tax and abuse and cruelty revealed by collectors and controllers. It spread quickly and was most organized in Essex and Kent. The main organizer was craftsmen Watt Tyler, Jack Straw and the idea inspirer John Ball, "crazy English priest from Kent", as he was called by French chronicler Fruasar. We know only news of local authorities that he preached around the country "for ruin of his soul" and "visible temptation of the church". He was released from prison by the peasants’ revolt. Though his tirades were first of all levelled at church disorder and abuse, it was of social character too, with revealed equalizing tendentions. He liked to repeat to his listeners a popular folk distich: “When Adam delv'd and Eve span, Who was then the gentleman?” Many folk songs and ballads were compiled about the organizers of revolt. In the Song of the Husbandman, 1 of the notable poems of the alliterative revival, which may be dated towards the close of the XIII c., in octaves and quatrains rimed alternately on 2 rimes with linked ending and beginning lines—the tiller of the soil complains that he is robbed and picked; that, because of the green wax, he is hunted. And the insolence of the grooms and stable boys, the lackeys and servants, of the great towards the peasantry is told in the rude, coarse lines of A Song against the Retinues of the Great People.

Lollards appreciated personal example and writings of Richard Rolle of Hampole, (about 1300-1349), anchorite from Yorkshire, whose homily affected the future Reformation. Richard was rich by birth, studied at home, later at Oxford – main theological centre of the time. On his return home, he put on wandering clothes and a life of a hermit, having settled in Hampole, a town in Yorkshire. He gained fame with his improvised homilies and writings in Latin and English. Richard Rolle was an eminent English writer of the XIV c., who contributed a lot to the development of the English literature. His influence lasted more than 2 cc; he was a forefather of a whole literary school. Mostly interesting among his writings are: “The boke Maad of Rycharde Hampole to an ankeresse” - lecture on love to God dedicated to Margaret Kirkby, written in rhymed prose and “The form of perfect living”. As an English poet Richard is famous as the author of “The pricke of Consience”, close to its French source “Guidance about Sins" (Handlyng Synne) by Robert Mannyng (about 1288-1338). Although not formally canonised, he was regarded as a saint; and his reputation gave wider currency to his writing.

Latin writers of the XII-XIII cc., like Walter Mapp, John of Salisbury and Robert Grosseteste, goliards can be even more called Wycliffe’s predecessors. The invectives against Pope’s congregation, satires against clergy were popular in England 200 years before Wycliffe. Ignorant, brute, lustful monk, tippler and glutton, sly preacher, thief and liar, swindler – seller of indulgences, rogue – sacristan, etc. were widespread in French and Latin poetry and favourite objects of attacks before they were so skilfully immortalized by Chaucer in his “Canterbury tales”. The main theme of all these literary works is the satire on sinful priests. The attempts of royal family to control the church and even dissociate from Roman influence and especially the annual requisitions contributed into this trend. In 1305 “The Avignon captivity of popes” started, when all English money went through the church to their enemies – French and then to revolting Scots. “The Avignon captivity of popes” and arising right after Pope Urban VI’s return to Rome (1378-1389) “great dissidence” destroyed the halo of holiness around church. In 1366 parliament refused to pay requisitions, legalized by john Lackland. Edward III made a treaty with German emperor Ludwig of Bayer, excommunicate by pope, showing that he doesn’t care for pope’s interdict; so the lollards leaned on the English tradition saying: “We aren’t afraid of Pope or interdict”.

One of the main parts in the fight with Pope was taken by English Franciscan William Ockham (died about 1349), a pupil of Duns Scott. In 1324 he was persecuted for his philosophical teaching and escaped to the court of Ludwig Bayer to Munich, where he wrote a few political works on the necessity of differentiation of secular and ecclesiastical authorities “Disputatio super potestate Ecclesiastica” and philosophical works attacking Catholicism. Ockham was a nominalist – a supporter of English medieval materialism. His works bred a school of his followers in Paris and Oxford and he influenced greatly Wycliffe. John Wycliffe was born about 1320, finished Oxford and was linked to this scientific centre as 1 of the greatest theologians of the time. In 1372 he received DR. and a prestigious position of a secretary at large. He was honoured at court and committed a few diplomatic trips. However, soon his fight with Pope’s curia began; the I Pope’s bull demanding his renunciation appeared in 1377. It didn’t have a result; Oxford and court protected him. But after the peasants’ revolt of 1381 he was considered as dangerous. In 1382 a church trial pleaded him guilty, but he wasn’t executed due to his fame. Urban the VI called him to the Trial to Rome, but he rejected to come and soon died, in 1384.

The main result for the English literature of Wycliffe’s teaching about the spreading of any kind of authority from one God was that every person has a grain of this authority and the believer can read Bible for him/herself and interpret it. It was this appeal to the Scriptures that gained Wyclif his name of Doctor Evangelicus. In the Bible he found a source of spiritual strength, an inspiration of moral energy as well as a guide to conduct. For these reasons he wished to spread its use. In his many treatises (more than 100) written in Latin and English, Wycliffe pointed at the Bible as the main source of faith and at people’s right to read it in their mother tongue. It became th main task fulfilled by Wycliffe and his collaborators from 1380 till the end of his life. English translation of the Bible, committed by Wycliffe is known in many manuscripts (about 170) and 2 main editions made btw 1380-1384 I and II made by John Purvey, secretary of Wycliffe after his death in 1395-1397. It had its meaning for the forming of the English prose. In the XVI с., after the Reformation, it became very popular in the printed form 1525-1600 (326 publications). The same concerns theologic and moral treatises, pamphlets of Wycliffe. The most famous of the English works by Wycliffe – “The Wyket” composed as an allegory of a human life with a travel to reach real home.

Literary work of Wycliffe had more significance for the English and European thought of the time, more than to the literature only. Through the circle of Ann, daughter of the German emperor Carl IV (1347-1378) and Czech king Ventseslav’s sister, wife of English king Richard II (1377-1399), Wycliffe’s doctrine penetrated into Czech and got connected with the movement of “Hussites”. Wycliffe’s doctrine was condemned at the same Constance synod, which burnt Yan Gus. Orthodox reaction tried to eradicate Wycliffe’s ideas from society, into which they were introduced by the lollards – a religious sect, well-spread in England in the last quarter of the XIV c. among village and city dwellers and even aristocracy, mostly among wandering preachers. Fight with lollards was merciless up to burning at the stake. This took place simultaneously with the war with France that started during reign of Edward III and was “A Hundred Years’ War” (1337-1453). Already in 1354 parliament unanimously demanded its ending, and this was done many times. The heroic appearance of feudalism disappeared in the folk masses, but was still preserved in literature. By this one can explain fame of romances and even the revival of some archaic tendencies in the so called alliterative romances of the XIV с. Chivalrous code of France was still popular among the English noblemen up till the end of the XV с.

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