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[p] and [b]
1. [p] and [b] become labio-dental when immediately followed by [f] or [v], e.g. hopeful, subvert.
2. The position of the lips depends on the vowel or the sonorant immediately following [p] or [b]:
1. the lips are spread, e.g. pea, bed;
2. the lips are rounded, e.g. paw, bought, pool, boot.
3. Before front, high or mid-open vowels [p] and [b] sound a bit clearer than before back vowels, e.g. peak, big.
4. The explosion takes place nasally when [p, b] are immediately followed by a nasal consonant, e.g. topmost, happen, submarine, abnormal.
5. The breath passes out laterally when [p, b] are followed by [1], e.g. plate.
6. When [p, b] are followed by another plosive only one explosion is heard, e.g. kept, subtract.
7. [p] is aspirated in a stressed position followed by a vowel or a diphthong, e.g. park, pound.
There is hardly any aspiration when [p] is preceded by [s], e.g. spy, speak.
8. [b] is fully voiced during its second stage when it occurs between two vowels, e.g. labour, about.
[t] and [d]
1. Dental allophones of [t, d] are used before [Ɵ] or [ð], e.g. eighth, width.
2. Post-alveolar allophones of [t, d] are used when they are followed by [r], e.g. trip, drug.
3. The position of the lips depends upon the vowel or the sonorant [w] immediately following [t] or [d]:
1. the lips are spread, e.g. tea, deep.
2. the lips are rounded, e.g. twenty, dwell, tool, do.
4. Before front, high or mid-open vowels [t] and [d] sound a bit clearer than before back vowels, e.g. tear, dell.
5. The explosion takes place nasally when [t, d] are immediately followed by a nasal consonant, e.g. kitten, utmost, didn't, admit.
6. The breath passes out laterally when [t, d] are followed by [1], e.g. cattle, riddle.
7. When [t] or [d] are followed by another plosive only one explosion is heard, e.g. football, sideboard.
8. [t] in a stressed position and followed by a vowel or a diphthong is aspirated, e.g. time, town.
There is hardly any aspiration when [t] is preceded by [s], e.g. stone.
9. [d] is fully voiced during its second stage when it occurs between two vowels, e.g. reading.
In word final position the lenis [d] is only partially voiced, e.g. ride.
[k] and [g]
1. The exact point of articulation of [k, g] is dependent upon the nature of the following vowel. Before the front vowels the point of the contact is more forward and it is farther back before a back vowel, e.g. keep, gas, car, garden.
2. The position of the lips depends on the vowel or the sonorant [w] immediately following [k] or [g]:
1. the lips are spread, e.g. key, geese.
2. the lips are rounded, e.g. cool, cord, question, go, good.
3. Before front, high or mid-open vowels [k] and [g] sound a bit clearer than before back vowels, e.g. kill, get.
4. The explosion takes place nasally when [k, g] are immediately followed by a nasal consonant, e.g. banknote, signal, fragment.
5. The breath passes out laterally when [k, g] are followed by [1], e.g. club, clever, ugly, eagle.
6. When [k, g] are followed by another plosive only one explosion is heard, e.g. blackboard, rugby.
7. [k] is aspirated in a stressed position followed by a vowel or a diphthong, e.g. cur, kind.
There is hardly any aspiration when [k] is preceded by [s], e.g. square.
8. [g] is fully voiced during its second stage when it occurs between two vowels, e.g. cigar.
In word final position the lenis [g] is only partially voiced, e.g. fog.
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