Outline the Norman Conquest and the establishment of feudalism in England and further consolidation of the English state. The main dates in the formation of the U.K.

The last of the invaders to come to Britain were the Normans from France. In 1066 Duke William of Normandy, who claimed the English throne, defeated the English at the battle of Hastings on the 14th of October in 1066 and established his rule in the country as king of England. He is known as William the Conqueror. The Normans settled in the country, and the French language became the official language of the ruling class for the next three centuries. This explains the great number of French words in English. The monarchy which was established by William and his successors was, in general, more effective. The feudal system contributed to the growth of power of the state, and little by little England began to spread its power. Wales was the first to be conquered by England. Before they were conquered by the English in the 13th century the different Welsh tribes were continually fighting one another. In 1282 Prince Llewelyn was killed in battle and the King of England, Edward I started a successful campaign to conquer Wales. Eventually the country was subdued, but the English never felt safe there because of Welsh opposition. This explains why the English built so many castles here of which most famous is Caernarvon located in North Wales. At the same time Edward I of England made his eldest son, his heir, bear the title Prince of Wales in 1301. Though Wales was conquered by England, the Welsh continued to struggle for their independence. At the beginning of the 15th century there was a great rising, but the situation was seriously changed when in 1485 - the English throne passed to Henry VII of the Welsh House of Tudor. In 1536 and 1542 Henry VIII brought Wales under the English parliament through special Acts of Union. Since the 16th century Wales has been governed from London. In today's Government there is a special department and minister for Welsh affairs. Since 1999 Wales formed its own Parliament, the Welsh Assembly, which consists of 60 members. Scotland managed to be independent for quite a long time, though the English tried hard to conquer it. In the 14th century Robert Bruce led the struggle against the English, but he was defeated by the English king Edward I and had to hide on an island between Scotland and Ireland. Here Bruce found shelter in a cave. He was in despair. He had been defeated, his friends were scattered, and the English were strong as ever. As he lay on the cave's hard floor, thinking how difficult it would be to win his struggle, he saw a spider above him spinning its web. Again and again the spider slipped from the web, and again and again it climbed up a line of the web until the whole web was completed. The example with the spider gave Bruce new strength. He managed to organize a new army and defeated the English. However, some years later Edward II, the new English king, decided to attack Robert Bruce in Scotland. He managed to cross the border and reach the Bannock Burn or stream just south of Stirling Castle, which was not taken by the Scots and remained in English hands. Here in the battle of Bannockburn (1314) the English were very seriously defeated, and Scotland continued to be independent for the next three centuries. In 1603 Queen Elizabeth I died and, as she had no children, was succeeded by James Stuart, James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England. He was the son of Mary Queen of Scots, cousin of Elizabeth I. With this union England, Wales and Scotland became known as Great Britain. However, Scotland continued to be quite independent in the 17th century. The final unification took place in 1707, when both sides agreed to form a single parliament in London for Great Britain, although Scotland continued to keep its own system of law, education and have an independent church. Today Scotland is part of the United Kingdom. There is a special minister in the Government, the Secretary of State for Scotland. In 1999 Scotland restored its independent Parliament of 129 members. This process which took place in Wales and Scotland is known as devolution, which means granting greater autonomy to the national parts of the United Kingdom.

The main dates in the formation of The British state:

664 – the adoption of Christianity in England contributed to the unification of the country. 829 – the Saxon kingdoms fought one against the other. Wessex became the leading kingdom and united the rest of England in the fights against the Danes. The Greater part of the country was united under the name England. 1282 – Wales actually subdued by the Norman English.

1536, 1542 – Hanry VIII brought Wales under the English Parliament through special acts of union.

1603 – Monarchial union of England and Scotland.

1707 – Formation of GB.

1169 – Hanry II of England started an invasion of Ireland. A large part of Ireland came under the control of the invaders but there was not much direct control from England during the middle ages. In the 16^th century Henry VIII quarreled with Rome and declared himself head of the Anglican (Protestant) church. Ireland remained catholic. So Henry VIII tried to force Irish catholic to become Anglican. He punished them by taking a lot of their land. This policy was continued by his daughter Elizabeth I. The Northern Province of Ulster became the centre of resistance which was crushed by the English in 1607. After this events Ulster became an area of settlement by protesting immigrants from Scotland and England. The “plantation” of Ulster began. 23 new towns were built in Ulster to protect the protestant settlers known as plunters. The Irish catholic were driven from their lands. The population of Ulster became protestant in majority. At the end 18th century there was a mass risen against the English colonizers which was crushed by the English army. In 1801 a forced union was established with Britain. After a long and bitter struggle the Southern part of Ireland became a free state. In 1922 Ulster where the protestants were in majority remained part of the UK. 1998-99 – Devolution (granting of independence to the national parts of UK).

7. Analyze some national traits of the British people and their traditions, their private life, eating traditions, love of sports. How did geography and history affect the British character?

Some of the British national traits are resulting from the British way of life. Its geographical position was one of the most important factors which contributed largely to making a distinctive character of its inhabitants. The British are known as a people self-assured, absolutely confident in their national sense of superiority. The British display a very wide toleration of individual differences among themselves, and even among others. The British have some very rigid codes of behavior, notably the public-school code. Individuals who do not do the right things and do not avoid doing the wrong things soon find themselves rejected. For example, it is part of the Englishman's code not to intrude upon his neighbours and their way of doing things. They have their lives to live in their own way, and he has his.

The British are really conservative; they love familiar things in familiar places. They are against any suggestion that some modification of their habits, or the introduction of something new and unknown into their lives, might be to their advantage. On a national scale their conservatism may be illustrated by the attitude to the monarchy which is held in affection and reverence by nearly all English people. Local corporations, universities, schools and societies have their own private traditions. They like to think that their private customs differentiate them, as groups, from the rest of the world. Self-assurance, willingness to tolerate eccentricity, law-abidingness, a curious mixture of conservatism and enterprise - all these are generalizations which hold reasonably true of all classes of the British people. The English countryside is many things to many people. Every Englishman is a countryman at heart. Many years he may have lived in the city, but he does not believe he really belongs there.

The village with its church, pub, fishing, cricket, animals, everywhere, especially dogs and horses - all this creates an ideal image of Britain. We should also add to this picture the seaside, a passion for gardening and a love for old customs and traditions. The British people may be conservative about the times they take their holiday, but they have shown themselves very ready to take to new places. Each year more English people go to different parts of continental Europe. Many take their cars, with tents and caravans; others use the travel agents' scheme for group travel and hotel booking. Most people in Britain work a five-day week, from Monday to Friday. Schools, colleges and universities are also closed on Saturdays and Sundays.

On Saturday afternoon the most important sporting events of the week take place - football, rugby, horse-racing and other sports. Some people go and watch; others sit and watch the sports programmes on television. The British are great lovers of competitive sports. Saturday evening is the favourite time for parties, dances, going to the pictures or the theatre, in fact for "going out" generally? If the weather is fine, people may decide to go out for the day. Organized amateur cricket is played between club teams. Rugby is very popular at schools where they have good playing fields for that. Golf & tennis are played by great numbers of people. Another popular game is bingo or lotto, which is usually played in halls or former cinemas. Hunting is a popular sport among the rich.

Sunday is the day when most people are engaged in some activity such as gardening, washing the car, taking the dog for a walk. Another most popular activity on this day consists of a visit to a pub -either a walk to the local pub, or often nowadays a drive to a more pleasant country pub.

The usual meals peculiar to Britain are the English breakfast (early morning), lunch (midday), afternoon tea (4.00-5.00 p.m.) and dinner (7.00-9.00 p.m.)

BREAKFAST is generally a bigger meal than they have on the Continent. The usual English breakfast is porridge or cereals with milk or cream and sugar, bacon and eggs, jam or marmalade with buttered toast, and tea or coffee.

LUNCH is generally eaten about one o’clock. When at home they have cold meat, potatoes, salad and pickles, with a pudding or fruit to follow. Sometimes they may have a mutton chop, or steak and chips, followed by biscuits and cheese. Some people like a glass of light beer with lunch.

AFTERNOON TEA is a sociable sort of thing. Tin classic afternoon tea consists of small sandwiches, bread, butter and jam, scones, sponge cakes, biscuits and sometimes buttered crumpets.

DINNER (7.00-9.00 p.m.) is the ordinary evening meal for sonic middle-class people. Lower class people call it supper. Dinner usually begins with soup, which is followed by fish, roast chicken, potatoes and vegetables, a sweet, fruit and nuts. Coffee and cigarettes are served in the sitting-room.

SUPPER (9.00-10,00 p.m.) is usually a light snack and may include an omelette or sausages, sometimes bacon and eggs and sometimes just bread and cheese, a cup of coffee or cocoa and fruit.

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