Examine the main stages in the formation of the population of Great Britain (Ancient Britain, the Celts, Romans, and Anglo- Saxons).

Give an account of the physical geography of the British Isles, describing the varied relief features. Examine the main rivers and lakes of Great Britain. Outline the climate and weather of the British Isles. Account for the chief mineral resources of Great Britain

It’s strange, but been a small island, Great Britain has a remarkable variety of landscapes. England, which is the richest, the most fertile and populated part of the country, has beautiful valleys and plains, which are called the Lowlands. Ranges of chalk hills stretch across the south of England. In the north, England is separated from Scotland by the Cheviot Hills running from east to west. The Pennine Chain, which extends from the Cheviots to Derbyshire, is called the Backbone of England. West of the Pennines are the Cubrian Mountains. There are many picturesque lakes with wooded or grassy shores here. It’s the famous Lake District, the real tourist attraction. Here lies the largest lake in England- Windermere.

Wales and Scotland are mountainous areas. In Wales the mountains are rocky and difficult to climb. The mountains cover practically all the territory of Wales and are cold the Cambrian Mountains. The highest peak is Shadow (1,085m).

Geographically Scotland may be divided into three physical regions: The Highlands, The Central Lowlands and the Southern Uplands. The Highlands of Scotland are among the oldest mountains in the world. But they are not very high. The highest of them is Ben Nevis (1,344 m).

The Central Lowlands sometimes known as the Midland Valley lie between the Highlands and the Southern Uplands. The Central Lowlands have the most fertile soil, the most temperate climate and the best harbors.

The Southern Uplands extend from the Central Lowlands of Scotland in the north to the Cheviot Hills and the Lake District in the south. The Uplands form a broad of pastoral country.

Geographically Ireland is an island and a single unit, but politically it is divided into Northern Ireland (capital Belfast) and the Irish Republic with the capital Dublin. Ireland forms a large extensive plain surrounded by a broken belt of mountains, or the uplands: the Antrim Mountains, the Sperrin Mountains and the Mourne mountains.

The longest rivers of Great Britain can’t be compared with the great rivers of the world, but few countries are better supplied with useful streams. The longest of them are the Severn, the Clyde and the Mersey. They flow into the Irish Sea. The Thames, the Trent and the Ouse keep the way to the Irish Sea.

A warm ocean current, the Gulf Stream, washes Britain shores. This water heats up and cools down very slowly. So the climate of Great Britain is temperate and mild and the country enjoys warmer winters and cooler summers than other countries at the same latitude. The climate is not the same in all parts of Britain. The western side is warmer than the eastern and it also has more rain. This is due to the form of the surface of the country. The western hills and mountains shut out some of the mild winds from the Atlantic. In Britain, there is much rain and fog in autumn and in winter, so it is a damp country.

Mineral wealth: Great Britain has no large-scale resources of non- ferrous metals. Nearly all of them are imported. However, the country has a great variety of non-metallic minerals such as granites in Devon and Cornwall; clay, chalk, sand and gravel important for the building industry; different kinds of salt; kaolin, a fine white china-clay used in cotton, paper and pottery manufacture.

The most important offshore oil fields are located off the eastern and northern coast of Scotland and north-east England. Today Britain is completely self-sufficient in oil, and also to a great degree in gas.

Examine the main stages in the formation of the population of Great Britain (Ancient Britain, the Celts, Romans, and Anglo- Saxons).

In prehistoric times Britain was joined to the rest of Europe. The first people came there over dry land. Towards the end of the Ice Age the low-lying land areas became covered with water, and thus the present English Channel was formed. The hunters of the New Stone Age crossed the sea to Britain to the west of tie Channel and settled along the Western shores in their search of food. First inhabitants of the island for whom a traditional name exists are the Iberian or Megalithic people, who lived mainly in the western part of the country. They are thought to have come from the region of the Mediterranean Sea (the Iberian Peninsula where Spain is located) somewhere after 3000 B.C. Soon after 2000 B.C. another people entered the country from the east of Europe. The two peoples intermixed.

The Celts arrived from Central Europe after 800 B.C. The name "Britain" comes from the name of a Celtic tribe known as the Britons who settled in the country. The Celts spoke the Celtic language. The influence of the Celts was greatest in Wales, Scotland and Ireland. They were driven to these parts by the invaders who followed them. Due to this, these parts of Britain are very different from England in language, custom, traditions.

Caesar, the Roman ruler, first invaded Britain in 35 B.C., because Caesar knew that Britain produced corn which the Romans needed. Tin, widely used in Rome, was exported from Cornwall. And the Romans needed a fresh supply of slaves. Moreover, the Celts in Britain helped their kinsmen in Gaul in their struggle against the Romans who wanted to conquer them. However, Caesar's first expedition was not successful, because his force was small, and the Celts fought well. So in the following year that is in 54 B.C. he invaded the country with a larger army of 25,000 men. This time the expedition was successful, and the Celts were defeated. But Caesar did not stay in Britain. He left the country with many slaves and other riches, and he received a promise from the Celts that they would pay a regular tribute to Rome.

Some 90 years later, that is in A.D. 43 the country was conquered by the Romans. This occupation of Britain continued to the beginning of the fifth century. In the south and south-eastern parts Roman influence was greatest, while in the north and west the country remained much untouched.

Many towns were built by the Romans which were connected by good roads. Some of these roads still exist to this very day. For example, Watling Street from London to Chester. Most British towns with names ending with "Chester" were, in Roman times, fortified camps. The largest of the towns was called Londinium. It began life as a Roman fort at a place where it was possible to cross the river Thames. Many believe that here was a Celtic settlement called "Llyn-dyn" which meant "lake-fort". Life in the south-east of Britain resembled life in Rome, and there was a lively trade between Britain and the continent. However, when the Romans left the country at the beginning of the 5th century, Britain became open to the attacks of newcomers from the continent who destroyed Roman civilization and culture.

After the departure of the Romans, the Celts remained independent for some time, but quite soon the country began to be attacked by Germanic tribes from the continent. The Jutes and the Angles came from the Jutland peninsula (today southern Denmark) and the Saxons from the territory between the Rhine and Elbe rivers (northern Germany). At first they came as mercenaries hired by Celtic tribal chiefs who fought one against the other, then seeing that the country was weak to defend itself, they came in great numbers conquering it altogether.

The Jutes landed in Kent (the south-east) somewhere in 450. They were followed by the Angles and the Saxons so that by the end of the 5th century the greater part of the country (with the exception of Wales, Cornwall and Scotland) became occupied by the invaders. The Angles settled mainly to the north of the Thames and quite soon the country began to be called "the land of the Angles", later "Engla-land" and as you easily see England. The Saxons settled in the south, south- west and partially east forming the ancient kingdoms of Wessex, Sussex and Essex. The Anglo-Saxons and Jutes were close to each other in speech and customs, and they gradually formed into one people referred to as the Anglo-Saxons.

Although the German invaders occupied most of the British Isles, certain areas remained unconquered. They were Wales, Cornwall, the northern part of Britain, Ireland. Many of the Celts who survived after the attacks of the Germanic tribes fled to these parts of the country. Thus Celtic culture continued to exist in the parts of Britain which were mentioned above. The northern part of Britain was the home of the Picts and Scots. After the conquest of the Picts by the Scots in the 9th century this northern territory came to be called Scotland and a united Scottish kingdom was formed in the 11th century.

The Saxon kingdoms fought one against the other, at times one kingdom would become stronger, then another, but at the beginning of the 9th century Wessex became the leading kingdom and united the rest of England in the fight against the Danes, who came from present-day Denmark. Since 829 the greater part of the country was united under the name England.

An important event which contributed to the unification of the country and the development of culture was the adoption of Christianity in England in 664. Christianity began to spread in England much earlier. It is connected with the name of St. Augustine who founded the Church of England in 597.

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