Chapter Synopsis

Political Parties, Campaigns, and Elections

Many people equate democracy with the presence of competitive political organizations. In a democratic political system, parties have four major functions: (1) nominating candidates for election to public office, (2) structuring the voting choice in elections, (3) proposing alternative government programs, and (4) co­ordinating the actions of government officials.

Political party activity in the United States has consistently revolved around two major parties alter­nating in power. The Federalists, Democratic Republicans, and Whigs formed the basis of two-party sys­tems earlier in our history. Today, the long traditions of the Democratic Party, founded in 1828, and the Republican Party, formed in 1854, virtually close out the field to any serious challenge from a young, up­start party.

The balance between the Democrats and Republicans in the current party system has shifted over time, with the most pronounced changes following three critical elections. A rough balance of power be­tween the parties followed the 1860 election. The 1896 election led to the Republicans' emergence as the majority party. The 1932 election led to a majority of voters identifying themselves as Democrats. More recently, the once solid Democratic South has become notably more Republican.

Minority parties fall into four categories: (1) bolter parties, which are split-off factions from a major party; (2) farmer-labor parties, which have a populist, working-class orientation; (3) parties of ideological protest, such as the Socialist and Libertarian parties; and (4) single-issue parties, such as the Prohibition Party. Minority parties on the whole have not been strong vote getters, but they have had some success as policy advocates. They also serve as a political safety valve by giving discontented groups the opportunity to air their policy views.

Party identification, a state of mind or psychological attachment to a political party, should be dis­tinguished from voting, which is a behavior. Most Americans readily identify with one of the two politi­cal parties, and this predisposition is the most important long-term force affecting U.S. elections. Short-term factors, however—such as candidate attributes and policy positions—may lead a voter to abandon his or her party's nominee and vote instead for a candidate of the opposing party.

Although both the Democrats and the Republicans support the concept of capitalism, a definite ideo­logical gap exists between government roles favored by the parties. In particular, Democrat activists are more likely to be liberals or moderates, whereas Republicans are more inclined toward conservatism.

Neither Republicans nor Democrats have a hierarchical party structure, and the national party has little control over decentralized state and local election campaigns. The candidate nomination process in U.S. party politics, unlike other party systems in the world, centers on election rather than selection by party leaders.

The U.S. electoral process has undergone considerable change. Increasingly, election campaigns have evolved from being party centered to being candidate centered. Most candidates for major office are nominated through a primary election. To nominate a presidential candidate, parties employ a mix of presidential primaries, local caucuses, and party conventions. In seeking election, the incumbent usu­ally enjoys an advantage over the challenger, especially in elections to Congress, where challengers get far less money from organized groups.

Campaign funds are perhaps the most vital campaign resource. National and state governments now heavily regulate campaign financing. In 2002, Congress enacted legislation that raised the limit on indi­vidual political contributions to a given candidate but banned unlimited "soft money" contributions to national parties. At the national level, the Federal Election Commission enforces limits on financial con­tributions and requires full disclosure of campaign spending. It also administers the public financing of presidential campaigns. Such financing has affected campaigns by placing limits on campaign costs, by helping to equalize the amounts spent by major candidates in the general election, and by increasing the

candidate-centered orientation of elections. Public funds are given to the candidate rather than the politi­cal party represented by the individual. Access to such funds has generally further isolated the presidential campaign from congressional campaigns. Candidates usually turn to pollsters or political consultants to develop a strategy that mixes party, issues, and images. The campaign message is then disseminated via the mass media through new coverage and advertising. All seats in the House of Representatives, one-third of the seats in the Senate, and numerous state and local offices are filled in general elections, which are held in November in even-numbered years. The president is elected indirectly through the electoral college, in which each state has a number of electors equal to the total of its senators and representatives. In all states except Maine and Nebraska, these electors are awarded on a winner-take-all basis. Voters may vote either a straight ticket, in which they choose only one party's candidates for all offices, or a split ticket, in which they choose candidates from different parties.

Individual voting choices can be explained as products of long-term forces, which operate over a series of elections, and short-term forces, which are associated with particular elections. Party identifica­tion is the most important long-term force. The most important short-term forces are candidates' attributes and policy positions. Most studies of presidential elections show that issues are less important than either party identification or the candidate's image when people cast their ballots.

Although the party affiliation of the candidates and the party identification of the voters explain a good deal of electoral behavior, party organizations are not central to elections in the United States. Both major parties fail to meet two of the four principles of responsible government. First, they do not choose candidates according to party programs. Second, the governing party cannot be held responsible at the next election for executing its program because no governing party is in power when the president is of one party and Congress is controlled by the other. Even though parties do not satisfy all elements of the majoritarian model, in the United States, parties do fit well into the pluralist model. They function as gi­ant interest groups themselves, and thek decentralized organization provides many opportunities for other organized groups to back candidates that favor their interests.

Дата добавления: 2015-11-16