The Bolsheviks and the Whites

After the collapse of the Central Powers the Bolsheviks declared the Brest-Litovsk treaty invalid, formed a puppet Ukrainian Bolshevik government (to cover an open aggression), and invaded Ukraine. The peasants (83% of the population) were not satisfied with the Directory’s agrarian policy. Though the Directory proclaimed the nationalization of the land and its distribution among the peasants, it postponed the implementation of the law. The Bolshevik propagandistic slogans “the land to the peasants and factories to the workers” and “plunder what was plundered” touched the emotions of many Ukrainian peasants and workers. The Reds were quickly advancing into Ukraine without serious resistance. Most of the Directory army went over to the Bolsheviks. Even the Sich Riflemen (Sichovi Striltsi), the most efficient nationalistic unit formed in Galicia, announced their support of Communist ideology. By spring 1919 the Bolsheviks had controlled almost all Ukraine.

In conquered areas the Bolsheviks introduced their economic policy called the “war communism”. Its major points were: nationalization of enterprises; prohibition of freedom of trade; cancellation of money circulation; introduction of rationing card system of food distribution (карткова система); labor conscription (workers were mobilized to factories as to the army (трудова повинність)); establishment of state control over production; surplus-appropriation system (продрозкладка); introduction of collective-farms instead of distributing land to the peasants. In addition to that the “red terror” was widely applied against the new regime’s opponents. Many people died in concentration camps or were brutally killed as hostages. The implementation of war communism brought about horrible results for the Bolsheviks. All Ukraine was in anti-Bolshevik revolt which cleared the way for the invasion of the Whites from the Don. The former Directory’s otamans, who had gone over to the Bolsheviks in winter, now were actively fighting against them in the rear.

By summer 1919 the white Volunteer Army (“Добровольческая Армия”) of General Anton Denikin had controlled most of Ukraine. Characteristic features of the white regime were the reestablishment of landlord property rights; revival of freedom of trade; contributions and food requisitions from peasants for the white armies; liquidation of an 8-hour working day; closing of Ukrainian press; Russification in all fields of life; propaganda of the slogan “united and indivisible Russia”. Denikin even forbade using the word ‘Ukraine’ and ordered to call the country the ‘South of Russia.’ Such a policy conducted by the Whites also provoked numerous uprisings which undermined Deninikin’s power. Many regions were under control of various otamans who were against the Whites, the Reds, the Directory, and often against each other. In fact anarchy ruled in many parts of Ukraine. A lot of peaceful people died during this turmoil. Most of all suffered the Jews. Jewish historians estimated that more than 100,000 Jews were killed in pogroms in Ukraine. (Ukrainian historians say that from 30,000 till 50,000 Jews were killed). Practically all warring sides participated in pogroms: the Reds, the Whites, Petliura’s otamans, and many nonaffiliated bands of Ukrainian peasants (such as those of Makhno, Zelenyi, Angel, Hryhoryiv, etc). It should be noted that pogroms often occurred against the authorities’ orders. Despite Petliura’s attempts to stop pogroms his troops managed to commit 40 percent of recorded pogroms – more than any other side.[11] It happened because the discipline of Petliura’s ottomans was very weak. Petliura rarely could control them.

In the fall of 1919 the Denikin’s armies were defeated near Moscow. Soon the Bolsheviks again occupied most of Ukraine. Denikin’s army was isolated in the Crimea. This time the Bolsheviks’ attitude to the population was more cautious. They stopped collectivization (creating collective-farms), tried to use Ukrainian, stopped mass requisitions of food and mass terror, and, what was the most important, they did what other governments only promised to do - gave the land to the peasants. That step was decisive in securing their position in Ukraine. Lenin also allowed the formal independence of Soviet Ukraine in federation with Soviet Russia. That was just a trick to win Ukrainians’ support in a war against the major enemy – the Whites. Lenin never thought of giving Ukraine real independence.

The West Ukrainian National Republic (ZUNR)

In the fall of 1918 the Central Powers lost the war. The Austro-Hungarian Empire started to disintegrate. Poles and Ukrainians, the two major nations in Austrian-ruled Western Ukraine, began their struggle for independence. The Ukrainians planned to create the West Ukrainian People’s Republic consisting of Galicia, Bukovyna, and Transcarpathia. That intention brought them into conflict with the Poles who planned to revive the Great Poland “from sea to sea” (from the Baltic to the Black Sea). All West Ukraine’s lands were to be included in the Great Poland. At first Ukrainians were victorious. On 1 November they captured Lviv and proclaimed their independent republic with Ievhen Petrushevych as its head. A powerful 40, 000 ‘Galician Army’ was organized.

The republic, however, could not control all the territories it claimed. Bukovyna was occupied by Romania, and Transcarpathia remained under Hungarian control until the Allies (Entente) gave it to the new state of Czechoslovakia. Lviv was also lost. It was not a big surprise since the population of the city consisted of 68% of Poles, 20% of Jews, and only 18% of Ukrainians who were mostly Catholicized and Polonized.

On 22 January 1919 the ZUNR (Western Ukrainian People’s Republic) united with the UNR (Ukrainian People’s Republic). The ZUNR got a wide autonomy and was renamed into ZOUNR (West Oblast of the UNR) which included Eastern Galicia, Bykovyna, and Transcarpathia.[12] This act went down into history as злука (unification), but in fact it was mostly symbolic because at that time Petliura’s armies were losing its territories to the Bolsheviks and West Ukrainians were losing their territories to Poland which got a strong 80,000 army of General I. Galler formed of former Polish prisoners (who had fought in the German army) in France. France provided this army with officers and arms. France wanted to prevent the reemergence of a powerful Germany on its eastern border. Thus Paris decided to create a strong and allied to France Polish state to counterbalance Germany from the East. That is why France wanted to strengthen Poland at the expense of western Ukraine. By 18 July 1919 all Galicia had been occupied by the Polish army. But the Galician Army managed to avoid encirclement. It crossed the Zbruch River and united with Petliura’s troops.[13]

After leaving western Ukraine the Galician Army fought in union with Petliura against the Reds. In November 1919 it came under the command of white General A. Denikin and fought with him against the Reds. There were serious disagreements between West and East Ukrainians concerning Ukraine’s enemies. West Ukrainians did not consider the Whites their enemies as their enemy was Poland. Petliura, on the contrary, considered Denikin to be Ukraine’s major enemy. Denikin promised not to use the Galician Army against Petliura. In January 1920, when the Whites were loosing the war, the Galician Army joined the Reds under the name of ‘Red Galician Army.’

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