11) The blackmailer had stupidly left his name and address on the magazine, and I tracked him down.
12) In those days it was childishly believed that if government went round every industry to ensure that its exports exceeded its imports then, hey presto, balance of payments problems would disappear, (i.e. People were childish to believe this).
II) A waiter threw a plate of curry at one of the customers, who not unreasonably felt aggrieved.
Chapter 2
COMPRESSING IDEAS (COHERENCE)
2.1.REFERENCE
Both in writing and speaking you often want to refer back to something that has already been mentioned. (Occasionally you may also want to point forwards to something you are going to mention.) There are various ways you can do this without repeating yourself. The words you use are not, strictly speaking, “linking words” but they function to make connections and to avoid repetition, sometimes of single words, sometimes of whole clauses.
1. One of the commonest ways of referring back (or forwards) to someone or something - whether in the same sentence or an earlier sentence - is by the use of PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND POSSESSIVE forms (e.g. '‘she”, “her”, “hers”, “it”, “they”, “them”, “their”).The PRONOUN ‘ONE’ can substitute for a singular count noun, and ‘ONES’ for a plural noun. ‘One’ can stand alone, but ‘ones’ needs another word or phrase to modify it. Notice that ‘one’ and ‘ones’ in contexts of this sort are primarily substitutes for other words, whereas ‘it’ and ‘them’ refer directly to things in the "real world”.
2. QUANTITY PRONOUNS AND DETERMINERS (e.g. ‘another’, ‘both’, 'neither’, ‘many’, and numbers) can substitute for noun groups referring to people or things. These words can be used without a following noun if the noun (or noun group) they refer to is mentioned elsewhere in the text, so this usage is in fact a form of ellipsis.
3. DEMONSTRATIVES (‘this’, ‘that’, ‘these’, ‘those’) with ellipsis of words that are present elsewhere in the text can also substitute in a more general way, but normally for things, not people. However, ‘those’ can sometimes refer to people, but only with a word or phrase added. This is still the case even if there is a noun or noun group to which the word refers
back. Certain pronouns, notably this, that, and it, can be substituted for previous clauses or sections of text. The substitution is not necessarily word for word - we understand the meaning and adjust the words slightly.
4. So and not can refer back and substitute for clauses, particularly after reporting verbs, and after expressions such as ‘I’m afraid’, ‘it appears’, and ‘it seems’.‘So’ and ‘not’ also substitute for clauses in the expressions ‘if so’, ‘if not’, and ‘even so’. ‘So’ and especially ‘not’, are also used as clause substitutes after ‘perhaps’, ‘probably’, ‘maybe’, and ‘possibly’. ‘So’ as a clause-substitute is sometimes used emphatically as the first word in a clause or sentence. This happens mainly with verbs of thinking and saying (i.e. reporting verbs). Clauses of this kind often suggest an element of doubt or disbelief about the truth of the previous clause.
5. A common way of referring back to another noun (or noun group) is to use A NOUN COMBINED WITH A DETERMINER such as ‘the’, ‘this’,, or ‘such’. Sometimes the same noun is repeated, but often a synonym (another word with roughly the same meaning) is used, or a more general word that includes the meaning of the other word. For example, the word ‘child’ can include the word ‘daughter’. Sometimes a word is used that belongs to the same area of meaning, based on our knowledge of the real world. For example, we know that if we combine mayonnaise and mashed potatoes the result is a mixture Combine the thick garlic mayonnaise with the mashed potatoes and spread this mixture on rounds of toasted French bread. Some very general nouns are regularly used to refer (backwards or forwards), not only to other nouns, but also, for example, to sentences describing actions, events, ideas, or statements. Such NOUNS are not linking words in a strict grammatical sense; their use is primarily semantic, based on meaning, but when they are used in this general way they are usually used with a determiner such as ‘the’ or ‘this’. So, by indicating links, they help to bind sentences together into a text, something we understand as a piece of language, rather than a random collection of unrelated! sentences.
• thing can be substituted for a noun referring to an object. More importantly, ‘thing’ can refer to something such as an idea, action, event, or situation.
• case refers to an event, situation, or circumstance.
• Way can refer to the means or method by which something is done.
• ‘such’ can combine with other words as part of a noun group to mean things, people, or actions ‘like that’, ‘of that sort’. Such (with or without an adjective) is used before singular and plural count nouns, and before uncount nouns. Such can also follow ‘all’, ‘any’, ‘many’, ‘no’, ‘one’ an ‘some’, occasionally without a following noun.
• act, action, activity, course (of action), move, process. An ‘act’ and an ‘action’ are similar, but if you describe something ajs an act, you are probably seeing it as something single and complete, whereas action puts more emphasis on the purpose and the process. A course of action or a move usually refers to a planned action. To refer to a course on its own (i.e. without ‘of action’) is rarer and more formal in this sense. If you talk about (an) activity, you are stressing that a lot is happening, that the action is very ‘busy’. A process is a series of actions, or a continuing action.
• circumstance(s), context, position, situation, state of affairs, state. Sometimes you want to refer to events or other conditions in which something else happens. These ‘background’ events or conditions can be referred to by these various general nouns. With ‘circumstance’, the plural is far more common than the singular. State often refers to someone’s mental, physical, or emotional condition.
• result, development, effect, outcome are some of the nouns which can be used when various events or states are seen as the result of some other events or actions.
• episode, event, experience. Something that happens which is important or unusual can be referred to as an episode, an event, or an experience. An experience stresses the event from the point of view of the person or people involved. Occasionally, objects, rather than people, are considered to have had an ‘experience’. This usage is rather metaphorical, and is sometimes intended to be humorous.
• manner, method, means, practice, system can refer to the way in which something is done. Method suggests that this particular way is intentional and deliberate; practice and system imply that it is regular or repeated.
• business can mean a happening of some kind. It sometimes suggests a complicated or difficult activity, a puzzling event, or a problem.
• You can refer back (or sometimes forwards) to a piece of text by classing the action or situation it describes as a definite fact or as something to be discussed (e.g. ‘fact’, ‘topic’) or perhaps as some kind of explanation for some other event or situation (e.g. ‘purpose’). If you describe some event or situation as a fact, you accept it as undoubtedly true. A factor is just one of the things or circumstances that could affect a situation.
• When the previous stretch of text describes ‘verbal action’, whether direct speech or not, you can refer to it using such nouns as ‘answer5, ‘excuse’, or ‘suggestion’, ‘promise, question, request, or reply’. If it is a ‘thinking action’, you can refer to it with a noun such as ‘belief', ‘idea’, view, viewpoint or ‘theory’,,
• attitude, doubt, fear, guess, hope, objection, wish describe personal attitudes
• stuff is sometimes used to refer to remarks or ideas in a rather disapproving way. This is an informal, mainly spoken usage.
Exercise 1. Explain what the underlined NOUNS refer to
1) The line of people waiting to be questioned pressed forward, as if by this action they could hasten the process.
a) this action...........................................................................................
b) the process..........................................................................................
2) People who organize their own disappearance may believe themselves to be acting rationally. Often the operation has been thoroughly planned and deep psychological problems that prompt such actions are well hidden.
a) the operation.......................................................................................
b) such actions........................................................................................
3) As you release your breath, let your left leg hang further so as to stretch your stomach muscles. The same procedure should be repeated on the other leg three or four times. This action will help to strengthen the muscles.
4) It is very likely indeed that the child will pretend that his homework doesn’t have to be handed in for ages, and that he needn't do it until next week. The chances are that he will be saying this because he wants to watch a favourite TV programme, so look out for the situation.
5) "Ingrid appears in public, maybe has her meals in the hotel dining-rbom. That way we make them think her sister is still here in Stockholm. But she is riot." He cleared his throat and I guessed he was about to raise an awkward subject. "But are we sure we can trust Ingrid?"
a) That way............................................................................... b) an awkward subject.............................
6) Environmental opposition delayed procedures for acquiring land, which (breed the railway authority to put large stretches of new line into tunnels. This in turn caused another problem. Entering a tunnel at high speed creates pressure pulses (that cause unpleasant sensations in passengers’ ears.
a) another problem.................................................................................
b) And what was the first problem?..........................................................
I) Al the time the realization that his best friend had murdered three people didn't seem to bother Wolfe, but since then I had come to see that the whole business had really shaken him.
8) What we have here is a very neatly organized basic textbook for first-year mathematics students. If our students knew all of this stuff when they arrived, or even when they left, to be honest, I would be more than happy.
9) Mrs Williams was reading a magazine. Diana was busy talking to Stephen about something. The children were playing quietly in a comer. "A dreadful thing has happened,” said Sophie as soon as she was sure they could not be heard. "Your brother, my brother, I mean dear Philip, of course, has run away from school and declares he will go to sea with you.
10) Another theory could be that the wounds had been inflicted after death.
There wouldn't have been much bleeding in that case. I wondered how carefully the doctor had examined the body.
II) The nurses were all very nice and helpful and assumed that I knew nothing about what would be done. I’m glad they did. In this circumstance I am a patient, not a doctor.
Exercise 2. In each of the following pieces of text, choose the best word
from among the underlined alternatives, and say what it refers to.
4) Of course he'd been talking in his sleep and of course he'd not known what he was saying. But the fact that he'd said that name meant it must be in mind. Sometimes, when she reached this point, she was able to dismiss the whole episode/event/happening as nonsense.
5) Hyperventilation, or overbreathing, is breathing in a rapid, shallow way using the upper chest instead of the abdomen. Breathing in this manner/method/ means produces more oxygen than the body needs.
6) Pressure to get tough on international fossil thieves has grown steadily, along with the prices collectors pay for top-grade specimens. The fact/issue/topic has come to a head over a piece of moon rock now in the hands of a private collector in the US.
7) "Here's what to do. If the police ask you, just say you can't remember who bought you the drink. Say the place was full of rich tourists and it must have been one of them." This plan/theory/view seemed to please the boy, who grinned and said "Right. No problem."
8) Suppose you do have one hundred people who do like and approve of you. Are you happy? No, because you are worried that the one hundred and first person might not like you. This argument /belief/ criticism condemns you to never being able to enjoy the positive feelings of those who do like you fully.
9) I am sure that there is some way in which a couple who have been turned down for adoption can be given an adult explanation for the denial/excuse/refusal.
10) I am going to help your parents get you better. We won't let you get any more ill, nor let you die, and nor will we let you get overweight, which I know is another doubt/fear/objection you have.
Exercise 3. Here is a newspaper report about UFO and the possible existence of aliens on other planets. The different linking and referring items are underlined, and notes follow. The paragraphs have been numbered for ease of reference and the comments are given in Russian.
CLOSE ENCOUNTERS AND CONSPIRACY OF SILENCE
1 Many scientists are perfectly happy with the idea that aliens exist in our galaxy. But ask them if those same aliens have visited the Earth, and the question will be met with howls of derision.
2 The cartoon image of the Unidentified Flying Object debate has led to the emergence of a "politically correct" stance on the issue, adopted by virtually all scientists: UFOs are definitely not alien spaceships.
3 Few will risk their scientific reputations by publicly discussing the thousands of reports that flood in every year from apparently sane members of the public.
4. However, many privately admit that the standard of the UFO debate is little better than a bar-room slanging match, with "scientific" arguments against UFOs as fatuous as claims for them.
5 Standard put-downs include claiming that aliens would have better uses for the huge amounts of energy needed to cross interstellar space, and that — even travelling at the speed of light — it would take thousands of years to cross the galaxy. Both arguments presume to know the motivations and the technical and physical abilities of any supposed aliens.
6. Other sceptics insist that aliens would have no reason to visit the Earth, an argument which ignores the somewhat disturbing fact that for the last 70 years radio transmissions announcing our existence have been streaming out from our planet into space — and have passed through hundreds of star systems on the way.
7 So what is the knock-out scientific argument that proves aliens have not visited us? "There isn't one. The fact is, we just don't know," says Professor Freeman Dyson, the distinguished British theoretical physicist at the Institute of Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey — and one of the few scientists happy to speak openly.
8 His reason for not investigating UFO reports is far more down to Earth. It's a terrible waste of time — a subject full of interesting stories that one can never check."
COMMENTS
Paragraph 1: "them" = их, многих ученых; "those same aliens" = существа, которые живут в нашей галактике; "the question" отсылает нас назад к целому предложению — вопросу "if those same aliens have visited the I tuth."
Paragraph 2: "a politically correct stance" отсылает нас вперед — к позиции ученых, что НЛО — не космические иноземные корабли; "the issue" = cпор о неопознанных летающих объектах, т.е. спор касается того, действительно ли НЛО существуют, а если это так, то что это такое.
Paragraph 3 "few" = некоторые (ученые),
Paragraph 4: "however" стоит здесь, так как существует противоречие с утверждением, сделанным в параграфе 3; "many" = многие (ученые) в противоположность "few" в параграфе 3; "privately" употребляется по контрасту с "publicly" в параграфе 3; "them" = НЛО.
Paragraph 5: "it" отсылает нас вперед к инфинитивной конструкции "to cross the galaxy"; "both arguments" отсылают нас назад к двум критическим
замечаниям, а именно, что инопланетяне могли бы с большей пользой употребить свою энергию, чем лететь на Землю, и что на это у них ушло бы тысячи лет.
Paragraph 6: "other sceptics” = другие люди, которые сомневаются, что НЛО — космические корабли инопланетян. Слово ’'sceptic" раньше не употреблялось, но "other" — слово, на которое ссылаются, и оно отсылает нас назад к критически настроенным людям параграфа 5; "an argument" = что у инопланетян не было причины посетить Землю,
Paragraph 7: "so" здесь показывает своего рода итог, результат того, что было сказано до этого; в этом случае оно вводит последний вопрос —- что является ошеломляющим аргументом, аргументом, который бы полностью уничтожил возможное существование НЛО? Ответом на это является "There isn't one" ("-one" = ошеломляющий аргумент).
Paragraph 8: "his" относится к профессору в параграфе 7; "it" = исследование сообщений об НЛО; "a subject" относится к НЛО и к тому, существуют ли они.
Recognising “reference links” is very important for effective reading, i.e. understanding cohesion and coherence of the text.
Just to remind:
Coherence: a text or a piece of writing is coherent if it is clearly organized and has a logical sequence of ideas.
Cohesion: a paragraph or section of the text is cohesive if the sentences are well constructed and well linked together, and there is no unnecessary repetition.
(Incidentally, both features are taken into consideration for successful performance in the CAE exam 1) in written work for Paper 2; 2) Paper 1, Part 2 - gapped texts; and 3) Paper 3, Parts 2 and 6 - structural cloze and discourse cloze).
Common reference links are:
First reference Later reference
e.g. a holidaymaker he/she/they
e.g. a new computer the computer
e.g. James Miles Mr Miles
e. g. One way of.. Another...
e. g. Mr and Mrs Lee the couple
‘‘New Technologies ” the company
human beings
Exercise 1. Fill in the gaps with there or it
1. By the time I got home,____ it was nearly ten o’clock.
2. ‘Is____ your birthday today?’ ‘No,_______ was last week.
3. Come here, Simon.________ someone here to see you. I think__________ is your
friend, Rod.
4. wasn’t warm enough to go to the beach, so we went to the cinema.
5............ wasn’t very much money left after I had paid for the shopping.
Exercise 2. Fill in the gaps with one or it Justify your choice.
1. | a: I need a loaf of bread. |
| b: I’ll buy this afternoon. |
2. | a: Is the phone ringing? |
| b: I can’t hear |
3. | a: Titanic is an amazing film. |
| b: I know. I’ve seen_____ twice. |
4. | a: When was the last time you read a book? |
| b: I haven’t read_______ for months. |
5. | a: Have you got a car? |
| b: No, I can’t afford |
6. | a: Do you like the new Rolling Stones CD? |
| b: I haven’t heard yet. |
7. | a: I need a dress for the party. |
| b: I’ll lend you______. |
Exercise 3. Fill in the gaps with this, that, these or those.
1. What are you doing________ afternoon?
2. Who is_______ man over there?
3. I’m really busy _______ days.
4. Hello? is Emily. Can I speak to Joan?
5. In _______ days, people didn’t have cars.
6, ‘Jim got married last week’._________ ‘s wonderful.
7, ___ car over there belongs to the mayor.
8, _______ people over there are waiting for the bus.
9. We’re moving house_______ month.
10. __________ diamond earrings here are priceless.
II. ‘I’ve got a new job!’ ‘____ ’s wonderful news.
12. ‘Mum,_________ my teacher, Miss Johns.
13. ______ are my holiday photographs. Would you like to look at them?
14. ‘Hello,_________ is Jane Black speaking’.
15. The day I got married was wonderful. I’ll remember __________ day for ever.
16. I had a wonderful childhood. We did things differently in __________ days.
Arranging jumbled texts
Exercise 1. Read the jumbled paragraphs about Kimora Lee Perkins and put them in the right order. The seven paragraphs in the text about Kimora are organized as follows:
1 - an interesting introduction
2 - some background
3 - training
4 - details about the work
5 - characteristics of the job
6 - what she has done with her money 7-advice to others
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Mademoiselle Chanel
a. She owes her remarkable looks to a Korean mother and a black father. But when she was young, back home in St. Louis, Missouri, she cried when she looked in the mirror and saw how tall she was. ’I felt I was different from all the other kids my age,' she explains. Her mother Joanne Perkins, 34, recalls, 'Kimora was a tormented child. It was almost impossible for her to relate to other girls of her age, and there was a lot of teasing. Growing up was a very painful experience for her.'
b. She is not only the youngest top model, she is also one of the richest. 'Mom looks after that,’ Kimora explains, 'I don't even have a credit card -I’m too young!1
c. When she was 11, her mother took her to a local modelling school. She thought modelling would be an interesting job because then she would be with other tall girls. She began to like it very much, and had to learn how to walk and pose to show off the clothes to their best advantage.
d. 'People think it's a very easy job that anyone could do, but you need a lot of stamina,' Kimora says. 'Once, in London, we had to take photos in the street all through the night, and then I had to go to my tutor for school lessons at 9,00 am before taking the daytime photos at 1.00pm.’
e. SHE'S 14, American, and speaks no French at all. But six-foot-tall Kimora Lee Perkins is hot news in Paris. She has become the top model at the Parisian fashion house of Chanel.
f. What advice does she have for others? ’You should go to a good modelling school, and you have to be prepared to work really hard and give your whole life to modelling.’
g. Chanel chose her because ’she has the look of the 90s’, and now she spends eight to ten hours a day modelling their latest fashions in various parts of the world. 'I have to try really hard to keep looking good for the cameras,’ she said.
Exercise 2. Here are two newspaper stories, which have been mixed up. Look at the headlines, read the paragraphs and decide which paragraph goes with which story. Then put them in the right order.
I. Mary will not 2. Wife
be giving up who could not
smoking... stop spending...
Mary Housewife
1, 4. 7. 1. 4. 7.
2, 5. 8. 2. 5.
3 6. 9. 3. 6.
A. A HOUSEWIFE who went on an £11,922 three-year spending spree complained in the London Bankruptcy Court yesterday that credit was far too easy to get. There Ought to be a law to change these things,’ she told the court. ’It’s so easy, you just go on and on.
b. Mary Padley smokes 60 cigarettes a day, plus the odd Churchill-sized cigar — and she is not giving up for anyone.
c. 'Every time I got a monthly statement it always said: "Why don’t you increase your credit limit”.
d. Even her doctor admits there is no point asking her to stop. Mrs Padley has just celebrated her 103rd birthday.
Her recipe for long life is ’work hard and don’t think too much about tomorrow’.
f,. She planned a small lunch party. But forty guests turned up and stayed until midnight.
g. She said all she had left now were assets worth £92. She had filed her own petition for bankruptcy because she ’didn’t know how to solve the problem’.
h. Mrs Linda Smaje, 39, who earns £32 a week as a domestic worker, and whose husband is unemployed, used finance companies and big-store credit cards to buy presents for her children and furnishings for her home.
/. Mrs Padley saw little of the outside world till she was 28. Orphaned at six weeks, she was raised by nuns in Ireland and at 17 joined the very strict Poor Clare order. She left at 28.
j. Outside court Mrs Smaje complained that the stores and finance companies continually tempted her to go on spending. They never checked my credit-worthiness. They always said "of course you can have the money”.
k. 'My goodness was I innocent,' she recalls. 'Apart from a few priests, I had never seen a man. I knew nothing at all about life.1
L Questioned by Mr Albert Billing, Assistant Official Receiver, she said she started opening bank accounts, applying for credit cards, and generally getting credit in 1979. In March 1980 she obtained a £1,640 loan to buy a caravan. Then she borrowed £2,000 elsewhere for kitchen equipment she did not really need.
m. She moved to London, where she worked as a maid and cook. She was a nurse during the First World War and an air-raid warden in the Second, crawling out of bomb debris on four occasions.
n. She married fellow warden Frederick Padley in 1939. He died in 1961 aged 72.
o. T blame the London stores who encouraged me to spend and spend. I just had to pick up the telephone and ask for more, and their salesman replied: "Of course, madam".'
p. Nowadays Mrs Padley has a home help, but likes doing her own housework and bakes all her own cakes. She used to tend two gardens until Age Concern stopped her digging up last year’s potato crops.
Exercise 3. Here are three stories about people who have started their own businesses, but the stories have been mixed up. Read the paragraphs and decide which paragraph goes with which story. Then put them in the right order.
James McClarty 1. 2. 3. 4. 5
Jeremy Taylor 1. 2. 3
John Glover 1. 2. 3. 4.
a. James McClarty, 16, runs a part-time bakery delivery service. Every Friday evening he goes round his local village selling his wares — bread, rolls and teacakes, which he buys wholesale from a bakery.
g. Since then they have grown and grown. 'We use up to 20 riders and we buy ourselves a new bike every year. We've learned a lot about management, and we're now pretty confident about the future.'
b. Jeremy Taylor has had his market garden for 18 months now, growing fruit and vegetables for local consumption. He is most proud of his early potatoes and juicy raspberries. He thought starting a business would be complicated, but in fact he found it was quite straightforward.
c. He had the excellent idea of giving out free hot cross buns before Easter, and as a result he got bumper orders for the Easter weekend. 'I’ve already expanded to include the next village, but I've employed a friend to do the delivering.'
d. But there weren't any. 'I still had £100 and my bike. I'm lousy at mathematics, but my girlfriend Lynn was good at accounts, so we set up with another friend, Paul, as a third partner.’
e. James likes the extra money, but he does have one complaint. Tm getting fat. I can't help eating the teacakes!'
f. At first they found it very difficult to get known. 'Nothing seemed to work — leaflets and adverts in the paper brought nobody.' Then slowly the customers trickled in.
h. But his organization is far from old-fashioned. He has bought a computer, which he uses to work out orders, costs and profit. He has had the business for nine months.
i. He was given good advice by his bank manager. 'Start small, consolidate and expand gradually. There’s been an increased demand for really fresh vegetables, and my produce is picked, packed and sold within 24 hours.’
Дата добавления: 2015-09-29; просмотров: 70 | Нарушение авторских прав
| <== предыдущая лекция | | | следующая лекция ==> |