No matter where you go, you'll have the same problem. (= Even if you go far away from here, you'll...)
b) Whether you like it or not, I'll buy it. (= Even if you don't like it, I'm...)
c) I'll finish the job anyway (-even if he doesn't pay me).
1. Certain expressions of contrast produce the same effect as the conjunction even if
a) it doesn't matter/no matter + question word;
b) whether... or not;
c) anyway;
d) I'd buy a car in any case (=even if I
couldn't afford it).
2. a) Wherever he goes they will find him.
b) Whatever you do, don't forget to phone me (-even if you are very busy).
c) I don't like him, whoever he is (=even if he is very important).
d) Don't hesitate to call me:, whenever you feel like it (- even if it's very late).
e) Whichever player they buy they won't win the championship
Whichever holiday he chooses, he'll complain (= even if it's enjoyable).
f) However you do it, the result will be (lie same (= even if you do it very well). However stupid he is, he wouldn't do that (=even if he is very stupid). _________________
d) in any case.
2. Compounds of ever are also used as conjunctions, which combine the idea of contrast with that of condition.
a) Wherever refers to place.
b) Whatever refers to things.
c) Whoever refers to people.
d) Whenever refers to time.
e) Whichever refers to people or things where the choice is restricted.
f) However refers to manner or means. However may also be used in front of an adjective.
Exercise 1. Revise the quantifiers. Fill in the gaps with a relevant one: no, a little, a hit, much (2), a lot, far, at all, even, by far, any.
1. Your flat is_______ bigger than I expected.
2. I feel______ better today.
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11. This is________ the most valuable painting in the collection. |
1.2.2.-1.2.3. CONTRAST/ CONCESSION
Exercise 2. Combine the sentences below using a) but; b) although.
Example: Los Angeles is one of the smoggiest cities in America.
Many famous movie stars and musicians live there.
a) Los Angeles is one of the smoggiest cities in America, but many famous movie stars and musicians live there.
b) Although Los Angeles is one of the smoggiest cities in America, many famous movie stars and musicians live there.
1. Los Angeles has a high crime rate. Many people are attracted to its sunny, warm climate.
a)_____________________________________________
b)____________________________________________________
2. My new Hummer only gets eight miles to the gallon. It makes me feel like a big, powerful person.
a)____________________________________________________
b)_____________________________________________________________
3. The Golden State Warriors have not always been a great basketball team. They are having a good season this year.
a)___________________________________________________
b)______________________________ __
4. The Hummer is a dangerous and gas-guzzling car. People are buying
them as fast as GM can produce them.
a)___________
b)___________________________________________________
5. I had a lot of fun watching the entire “Star Wars’’ series on DVD. I didn’t learn anything new about astronomy or history.
a)____________________________
b) _ ______________________________________________ _
6. The job market is in a slump right now. It tends to change very quickly
and may improve soon.
a)___________________________________________________
b)___________________
Exercise 3. Connect the two ideas using the following linkers: but, although, however, despite, despite the fact that, in spite of, nevertheless.
High level positions are stressful at times. Professionals can learn to manage their stress levels.
a) ____________________
b _______________________________
c)_
d ________________________________________________________________
c) _________________________________________________
f) ______
g) ________________________________________________________
Exercise 4. Combine parts from each colun.
В
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Exercise 5. Fill the gaps with a suitable linker.
1. taking a map, they still got lost.
2. It took me two hours to do it________ the others finished in less than an
hour.
3. She managed to get there_________ she had a broken ankle.
4. It’s not the best dictionary you can buy;________, it’s better than nothing.
5. - He’s an expert on medieval Latin. — ____________, he has no knowledge of Latin whatsoever.
6. the shortage of steel, industrial output has increased by 5 %.
7. Genius________ she was, she was quite unassuming.
8. ________ caused the accident, it was not a broken bottle.
9. Raspberries have a matt, spongy surface_________ blackberries have a
taut, shiny skin.
10.________ often despairing of rescue, they held out to the end.
11.You shouldn’t be aggressive., you shouldn’t be too timid.
12. The____________________________________ party hasn’t lost its taste for discipline., feelings on this
subject seem to be stronger than ever.
13. Peter________________________ has got many friends, but he’s often lonely.
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Excrcise 6. Choose from the list of linking devices to fill in the gaps to complete the sentences below comparing and contrasting dolphins and humans.
Both, unlike (2), like (2), in contrast, nor, similarly, neither (2)
(1)_____ dolphins, humans communicate by making noises to each other.
However, dolphins, (2)_______ humans, seem to have no interest in investigating the languages of other species.
(3)_____ humans nor dolphins can breathe water. Strangely, however, although dolphins breathe air, they soon die if they are out of water. Humans,
(4)______, are fairly happy in either medium. (5)_______ humans and dolphins are believed by humans to be highly intelligent. Humans are social creatures, tending to live in societies. (6), dolphins live in groups. Being
mammals, (7)_____ dolphins (8)_____ humans lay eggs. (9)________ dolphins, humans can be trained to play skilful games with balls. (10)_____ humans, however, dolphins are not paid for displaying their skill.
1.3.TIME
Main clause
Present/future/ Imperative
Time clause
present simple/ present perfect
Examples:
He watches the news before he goes to bed.
By the time I arrived at the station the train had already left.
When + clause/ impersonal structure=
и1 the time; you can also use on the day/ at the moment / the first time instead.
! When (question word) + will (when will I know the results?)
Before + clause/ -ing (shows that the event in the main clause happens earlier Ilian that in the time clause).
Before together with previously, earlier and hitherto can open a separate clause. Previously and hitherto imply stronger contrast with the past. Hitherto is used only in formal style
After + clause/-ing; afterward(s) - imply shorter interval whereas later/ subsequently + clause imply longer interval and show that the event in the main clause happens later than that in the time clause Ago before now
Ily Ihe time/ by + clause/ -ing = not later than
Until/ till + clause/ time adverb = up to
I lie time when
Simultaneously = while/ as, used in formal style mostly While/ whilst/ meanwhile/ as/ aw long as + clause = in the time period
In Ihe meantime + clause (opens the second clause) = until then
During + noun/ -ing — in the time period
Lock the door when you leave.
The weather was lovely when we arrived.
I’m not sure when he will come.
Jim had fallen asleep before Ann got home.
Think twice before making any decision. Now he’s all in his work. Before, he did everything to avoid it.
She had a nap after she had finished revising.
Peter graduated two years ago.
I'll have arranged everything by the time you come back.
He’ll wait until you’re ready.
The earthquake occurred while/ as they were sleeping.
The next programme starts in five minutes: in the meantime here’s some mu-
As soon as/ immediately/ the minute/second/moment + clause = a fast sequence of events
Hardly...when/ no sooner...than are
used in the same meaning and for emphasis
Once + clause = as soon as/ when Since means the starting point for states/ actions
Note! When/ after/ since/ before/ until/ while can be followed by - ing-clauses to form impersonal structures; when/ until can be used with past participle, once - with perfect participle (having done);
When/ whenever/ while/ once/ until can be followed by a ver bless clause
Kxercise I. Specify the sequence of events in the following sentences and indicate the meaning of when.
Example: When Tweed arrived, he was shown into Faif'weather's office means: "Tweed arrived and then was shown into Fairweather's office."
1 •When they took the baby from me to clean her up, she let out a couple of good screams.
2. He only drank when he was sure of being alone.
3. When he had finished, he turned out the light.
4. Pierre strolled for 5 min. when he heard the girl’s screams.
5. I'll try to explain when I see you.
6. What will you do when you go back?
7. When you have finished, you will be shown to your bedroom.
8. When you have solved this mystery will you return to England?
9. When the phone rang, he was making himself a cheese sandwich. We were driving around outside when unfortunately three old ladies emerged from the hotel and came straight across in front of us.
10. We had just gone to bed when we were startled by a forceful knocking at the door.
11. The murder happened when I left.
Exercise 2. Rewrite the following sentences using on the day/ days, at the
(very) moment, the first time instead of when.
I So do you ever go to the college of an evening when you’re working?
2. This came when I got my last bank statement.
I. He arrived when the Civil Service was preparing radical administrative changes.
4, When my husband proposed to me, I said, "Yes, I’ll marry you.”
5, When I came here, I had the best night's sleep for months.
6, Matty enjoyed talking to Mr Halloran, whom he met when the greengrocer brought his van around.
7, There was a wave of dissatisfaction with President Bush's economic policy when that policy was starting to come right.
Exercise 3. Insert the following linkers into the gaps. You may often use more than one linker.
alter as soon as immediately once
the minute the second the moment the instant
1 Don told me this, he spoke of his mother.
2 I’ll telephone______ there’s any change.
3. _ he gets the money, he’ll pay you.
4, They were doing it long before we got here. And they’ll be doing it long we leave.
5 _______ he read the manual, he knew how to operate the machine.
6. A letter will be sent to your family doctor as soon as possible___________ you
have left hospital.
7. _______ I closed my eyes, I fell asleep.
8 Let me know_________ any of them turn up.
9._ Laura went for a ride on her moped________ Ian had left for work.
10. I’ll be marrying again________ circumstances allow.
11. I decided what to do, I stopped worrying.
12. Dena had gone to bed he studied the picture again as he drank a
brandy.
13. A microphone was put under my nose________ I got off the horse.
14 She put down the receiver__________ she recognized my voice.
15. He reached here right________ we did.
16. The smell will disappear_________ the hair is dry.
Exercise 4. Insert afterward(s), after (indicating shorter interval between actions) and later, subsequently (showing longer interval) in the following sentences.
1._____, he said "I bet you quote that in some interview!”
2. At Cambridge University, he gained a first in English and
______ completed his PhD thesis in early 19th century poetry.
3. We shared a cigarette.________, she rested her head on my shoulder.
4. Several players needed police protection and then the remainder left the
field. The referee brought them back and made them all shake
hands before resuming.
5. Write down those ideas. We can discuss them_____ __.
Exercise 5. Translate the following sentences into Russian and comment upon the difference between since and until (till).
1. These drugs have been the mainstay of medical treatment since they first became available in 1950.
2. Things have improved since the inspector wrote his report.
3. They talked about Stephen until they reached Canterbury.
4. He’s been there ever since you left.
5. A lot had happened since they last met.
6. The family had lived in the Manor House since it had been built in 1573.
7. We waited until Bruno's brother came and told us the news.
8. He has been there since you left.
9. The family have lived in the Manor House since it had been built in 1573.
10. It is over ten years since we left college.
11. Until it happens, you tend to be complacent.
12. It's ten days since the accident happened.
13. She doesn’t believe anything until she has seen it in print.
14. It was forty years since Ingrid had first arrived in California.
15. A widow at the grave of her dead husband: ’Rest in peace until I come'.
Exercise 6. Underline the appropriate time phrase.
1. I’ll call you while/the moment I get home.
2. You can visit me whenever/ till you want to.
3. We went for a walk after/ until we had eaten breakfast.
4. Once/ before he read the manual, he knew how to operate the machine.
5. I was doing the ironing while/during he was washing the car.
6. They didn’t get married until/ by the time they had saved enough money for their honeymoon.
7. I’ll write to you as soon as/ immediately I have the results.
8. We won’t move to a new house before/since the children leave school.
9. They had fixed the roof until/ by the time John came back.
10. I got to the station just till/just as the train was pulling in.
Exorcise 7. Fill in the gaps with by, until', while, before, hardly... when, as soon as, when, as long as, by the time.
1. You can keep those CDs for_________ as you like.
2. I can’t do any washing________ the washing machine is repaired.
3. We saw the smoke________ we turned into our street.
4. We had_______ gone to bed________ there was a knock at the door.
5. Sarah parked the car______ Paul dashed into the bank.
6. I have to finish these letters____________ I can leave the office.
7. Wait here_________ I get back.
8. I was washing my hair_______ the phone rang.
9. You must be home________ eleven o’clock tonight.
10. Sue reached the bank, it had closed.
Exercise 8. Rephrase the following sentences using the words in brackets. Make changes, if necessary.
1. As soon as he woke up, he jumped out of bed. (moment, when)
2. She did some research before she wrote her report, (after, soon).
3. I had no sooner entered the house than the phone rang, (hardly, scarcely).
4. Simon hurt his leg climbing a tree, (while, as).
5. We can’t go. We have to wait for the taxi to arrive, (until).
6. We opened the gate. The dog ran towards us. (sooner, hardly).
7. The shop will open at 9 o’clock. The staff will have come in to work by then, (time, before).
8. Her phone card ran out during her conversation with her mother, (while, as).
Exercise 9. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Что вы делали, когда началось землетрясение?
2. Не успел он заговорить, как его снова перебили.
3. Когда бы мы ни касались этой темы, он всегда злится.
4. Открывая дверь, он размышлял, что заставило миссис Оливер прийти к нему.
5. Он пообещал позвонить сразу же, как только доберется до места назначения.
6. Что вы сделали, когда началась гроза?
7. Рассмотрение его дела откладывается еще на несколько месяцев, а до тех пор большинство будут считать его виновным.
8. С тех пор как Колин прочитал эту статью, он не ест мяса.
9. Едва я закрыл глаза, как телефон опять зазвонил.
10. Они скоро подойдут. А пока давай выпьем кофе.
1.4. CONDITION
| ||
| Condition linking words: If = when + clause Unless + clause = except if (only if not) Note! It is never used in unreal conditional clauses In case + clause^ taking precautions On condition that (only if) + clause^ the necessity to agree on smth before taking an action Only...if/ only if/ as long as/so long as/ provided (providing) that + clause= the necessity of certain arranged circumstances before smth happens In the event of + noun/ -ing In the event that + clause = if a particular event - usually smth unpleasant - happens Assuming (that) = if we assume that one thing is true, then a second thing must also be true given that = the speaker is certain that one thing is definitely true | Examples: If/when the temperature falls below 0 degrees, water turns into ice. Unless you leave now, you’ll miss the bus. But not: I’ll be surprised unless he has an accident soon. Take an umbrella in case it rains. You can go out on condition that you wear a coat. 1 could make a report on intercul- tural communication so long as I have two days to prepare it. We shall give you a refund in the event of any damage In the event that they give you any real trouble, give me a ring. Assuming I can do it, you can do it, too. I don’t see what you can do about it, given that you have passed none of your exams. Considering that it’s going to be your future career, you seem not to |
considering (that) = the speaker is certain that one thing is definitely true, but the conclusion is often controversial suppose (that)/ supposing (that) = let us imagine
otherwise/ if not = introduce the possible result if smth goes a different way If so = refers us backwards and allows to suggest that smth is really going on
care about it.
Suppose she finds out about the surprise-party?
Do you have to go right now? Otherwise/ if not I suggest having a cup of coffee.
You must inform me who you are going to talk to and if so when.
Excrcise 1. IF = WHEN/ WHENEVER; IF vs. WHEN. Say in which sentences below if can be replaced by when/whenever and in which it cannot.
1. These glands all react if challenged by infection or trauma.
2. If we cut down all forests, the world’s climate will change.
3. If the temperature falls below 0° C, water turns into ice.
4. If he doesn’t pay fine, he’ll go to prison.
5. If I were you, I’d talk to my parents first.
6. If you take regular exercise, you feel healthy.
7. If she had studied harder, she would have passed the test.
IF or WHEN?
1. ______ I become President.
2._______ it gets dark.
3._______ the film finishes.
4. _____ she passes her exam.
5._______ it doesn’t rain tomorrow.
6._______ I wake up tomorrow.
7. you change your mind.
8._ his parents die.
9. the bus stops.
Exercise 2. IF vs. IN CASE. Use the correct linking word.
1. I’m taking my umbrella with me_______ it rains.
2, I’ll open the umbrella_______ it rains.
3. I’ve got the key we want to go inside.
4, People phone the fire brigade their houses catch fire.
5. People insure their houses___________ they catch fire.
6. We have a burglar alarm____________ somebody tries to break in.
7. The burglar alarm will go off_____________ somebody tries to break in.
8. I’ll let you know___________ I need help.
9. I’ll take the mobile phone____________ I need to phone you.
10. 10.1 ran away down the hill___________ she tried to follow...
Exercise 3. In the following statements explain the difference between if you ask me, if I may say so, if you don’t mind my saying so, if you see what I mean, if I'm not mistaken.
1. He looks a bit weird if you ask me.
2. Utter nonsense, if I may say so.
3. This is an irrelevant and, if I may say so. a rather naughty remark.
4. You're acting a little strange, if you don't mind my saying so.
5. It isn't my fault, not really. If you see what I mean.
6. They seemed almost like mother and daughter, but a mother and daughter who had switched roles, if you see what I mean.
7. And you're Mr Allan Kelling, the owner of this property, if Fm not mistaken.
8. If I'm not mistaken, one of the twins was named after me.
Exercise 4. Specify the difference between suppose (that)/ supposing (that) and otherwise/ if not/ if so. Choose the appropriate option in the sentences below.
7. Are you pressed for time, Mr Bayliss? Suppose/ If not I suggest we have lunch before going to the house.
8. Even supposing that/ if so people can agree on such choices, the result will be a rigid set of rules.
9. They must decide if such a plan can be implemented and if so/ if not when.
Exercise 5 Translate the following sentences into English.
1. А что если ему дадут право опеки над ребенком?
2. Это его сводная сестра, если я не ошибаюсь.
3. Мы никогда больше не увидимся, если я, конечно, не поеду в Австралию.
4. Он получил хорошие результаты, и это при том, что ему никто не помогал.
5. Моя мама поверит мне только при условии, что я скажу ей то, что она хочет услышать.
6. В случае его ухода (отставки) нам трудно будет найти такого специалиста.
7. Вы заняты сегодня? Если нет, давайте пообедаем перед отъездом.
8. Это совершенно безопасно. В противном случае, я не стал бы этого делать.
9. Учитывая тот факт, что у нас нет никаких доказательств, мы не можем считать его виновным.
10. Мы встретитесь с мистером Картером при условии, что у вас с ним назначена встреча.
1.5. CAUSE, EFFECT
English, like any other language, has several ways of indicating the link between cause and effect, in other words of relating someone or something (seen as the cause or the reason) to an event (seen as the effect, the result or the consequence). This chapter examines the most important ways in which this is done, so there is no cause for concern! It also considers how to express the purpose of an action and how to describe the action of causing something to be done (using causative structures).
Use of verbs
1. The bad weather caused all sorts of problems.
The closure of the factory resulted in the loss of many jobs.
a) Problems were caused by the snow. The strike was brought about by bad management. Bad management brought the strike about.
b) The loss of jobs resulted from the closure of the factory.
c) The oil crisis gave rise to a period of depression.
The introduction of computers has led to extensive industrial reorganisation 3. This song makes me feel very happy. The journey made him tired.
1. To cause is a most widely used verb. In more formal English the verbs give rise to, bring about, lead to, result in are also used.
a) To Cause and to bring about can be used in passive structures to focus on the effect.
b) We can also focus on the effect by using the verb to result from.
c) To talk about negative after-effects give rise to or lead to are often used.
3. The verb to make can also be used to link cause and effect
Use of nouns, adjectives, prepositions
1 Your telegram is the cause of the confusion.
The heavy traffic is the reason for the delay.
2 The increase in crime is due to unemployment. This discovery is the result of years of research.
3. We stayed at home because of the weather.
He was admired because of his originality.
lie lost his memory as a result of a severe blow on the head.
4. The flight will be delayed owing to the late arrival of the incoming
aircraft.
On account of the strike all payments will be postponed.
Compare:
The closure of the factory was due 1. A cause-effect relationship may be expressed by certain nouns or adjectives: be the cause of, be the reason for, be responsible for.
2. Be due to and be the result of focus on the effect.
3. Because of (suggests a less direct connection between cause and effect than as a result of). Because of gives an idea that the speaker looks at the situation, makes a mental judgement and feels the reason important for him/herself while as a result of suggests that the cause of the event exists objectively.
4. Owing to, on account of (fml.) have a similar meaning to because of
On account of is used especially to explain the reason for a difficulty, problem or failure. Due to is not accepted in traditional grammar as a preposition though it is often used in this way in spoken English.
to a lack of orders.
5. The war was lost through bad organisation.
It was through John that they found each other.
a) Actually, he’s not very bright. He passed his exam thanks to his hard work.
b) It was thanks to your stupidity that we lost the game.
I came just out of interest.
She was exhausted from all the sleepless nights.
5. The prepositions through, thanks to, out of, from can be often used in the expression of emotion or feeling.
Through is used: a) to explain why smth has succeeded or failed; b) = "by means of'. Thanks to is used: a) to explain why smth good has happened and especially if you are grateful to the person/thing that made it possible; b) in the ironical sense
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