Out of is used especially when smb has done smth they would not usually do.
From is used in collocations
Use of conjunctions
The cause-effect relationship can be expressed by means of conjunctions, which introduce subordinate clauses.
I She was hungry, so she made a sandwich.
a) The shop didn't attract enough customers, so it closed.
b) As the shop didn't attract enough
customers, it closed.
2. I'm doing this because I enjoy it. They enter politics because they're hungrу for power.
3. a) As he can't be at home now it's no use phoning him.
As she has forgotten her camera we won't be able to take any photographs. Since you're so friendly with him why don't you go and meet him?
b) Since computers have been introduced industries have had to be reorganised.
4 The princess was sad, for her father had died.
1 So introduces a subordinate clause which expresses the consequence of the main clause. It contrasts with because, since, as which introduce subordinate clauses expressing the reason for the main clause (b).
2 Because emphasises the reason, which a listener may not know. It is usually given after the main clause.
3. a) As and since (a little more formal than as) tend to imply that the listener already knows the reason and these linkers therefore give more prominence to the effect. They are more often placed at the beginning of the sentence.
b) In some cases there is ambiguity because as and since may also refer to time.
4. For can express reason. It is more characteristic of an old-fashioned or literary style.
5. The reason (why) can be placed at the beginning of the sentence and linked to the clause explaining the reason by that or be-
3. The reason (why) she left him was that he treated her so badly.
The reason (why) they lost the game is because their goalkeeper is no good. The room is cold. That’s why you are trembling.
cause.
That's why (less formal) has the same meaning but it starts a new sentence.
Use of linkers
1. Terrorist attacks have been predicted. Consequently security has been strengthened at Heathrow.
The price of raw materials has increased. As a result a fall in demand can be expected.
The person in question violated the rules of the club. Accordingly he has been expelled.
2. The economic situation was poor. We therefore postponed our plans for expansion.
The Bank of England has lowered its rate of interest. Thus a similar reduction can be expected from other banks.
3. a) One side of the rectangle is 4 cm and the other is 3 cm. Hence, the total area is 12 cm2.
Modern societies need educated workers. Thus we must increase spending on education.
The town was built on the River Cam: hence the name Cambridge,
b) We shall spend more money on education and thus give our young people hope for the future.
1. Consequently, as a result/ consequence, accordingly, for this reason, therefore, thus, hence are used in formal English to create It cause-effect link between two separate sentences. Their meaning is similar to so, though there are certain differences.
Consequently, accordingly, and as a result / consequence are used mainly to describe direct results and when describing actions/events at a particular time, place etc.
2. Therefore (without a comma) can be used instead of thus to state a result. It normally goes after the subject of the sentence or after the verb to be or any modal auxiliary verb.
3. Both hence and thus are used when one sentence explains another. Hence is used mainly for conclusions that a person could arrive at using his/her own logic or reasoning Thus is used for making conclusions following objective logic.
Notice: Hence can come after a colon, semicolon, comma or dash.
b) Thus can also mean “by this method\ “by doing this”. Notice that there is no comma after it. Thus is less formal than hence.
Other ways of expressing cause and effect
1 Effect or consequence can be expressed through the constructions: so +adjective/adverb -that and such +noun phrase + that.________________ _ _____________
2. If you boil the egg too long it gets/will get hard. 3. Evicted from their home, the family had to stay with friends. The president having left earlier than expected, we closed the meeting. | 2 Conditional clauses can express a cause- effect relationship. 3. Cause or reason may be indicated by the use of participle phrases: the past participle or the structure having + past participle. These structures are used particularly in formal English. |
Particularly in spoken English, we can set up a cause-effect link in many other ways. The expressions that we use are often not explicit but rely on the context of the conversation to make their meaning clear and occur at different levels of formality: | |
A: I didn’t see John at school today. B: Yes,... He was sick last night and I kept him at home. A: Why didn’t John go to school today? B: Well, you see, he wasn’t well last night. A: The girl get on my nerves: she’s always so irritable! B: the thing is/it’s like this; she’s got serious family problems. A: I was wondering why you hadn’t typed those letters? B: If I could explain, /The main reason, Mr. Johnson, is that it has taken me so long to contact all your agents. | neutral language; more informal language; more formal language. |
Exercise 1. Rewrite using DUE TO, OWING TO.
3. There were many casualties because the German guns shelled [their positions].
4. F'rance’s existing army personnel of 285,000 would be cut by 50,000-
70.0 men in “five or six years”. One of the reasons for it is that some
48.0 French troops from Germany are expected to be withdrawn.
5. There are occasions when flights are delayed and we can’t control the situation.
6. Once a printer failed to decipher my proof corrections, and a book of mine appeared with a recipe which called for the whisked whites of 123 eggs... no reader has ever written to me demanding an explanation of this recipe.
7. Real Italian Parmesan is very expensive; so it’s unlikely to be sprinkled generously over your food in Italian restaurants.
8. Guardsman Evans was unable to jump as the pilot decided to land. The thing is, darkness was approaching.
9. Young people’s exposure to rock music may be a possible reason why deafness among is increasing, say scientists.
10. The relaxing effect of music is well known. That is why, some language teachers find classical music useful in their lessons.
11. If you come from a city, you may find it hard to sleep in the country because it is very quiet there.
12. People hold noisy parties: hence many quarrels between neighbours.
Exercise 2. Translate into Russian. What linkers would you use to express cause-effect relationship in Russian.
1. He previously worked in the Ministry of Finance. He comes, therefore, with a great deal of experience and expertise.
2. These birds truly enjoy flying and should therefore be housed in lengthy aviaries.
3. The second millennium did not commence until January 1, 1001. Thus the second thousand years does not finish until December 31, 2000.
4. Most study groups are held during the day, thus avoiding evening or rush-hour travel.
5. Firms can contract out work to one another, and thus acquire specialized services, equipment and skills none of them could possess alone.
6. Only part of the restaurant was being used, and as a result the tables were closer together than usual.
7. On their travels they indulged their hobby of collecting antique furniture. As a result their home had become something of a museum.
8. Our son is at school near here, so that's another reason for not moving.
9. I was still unsure about the need for a book. So. I consulted several academic experts on Foucault.
10. I travel the globe six months of every year. Because of this I honestly believe that I know more about the airline business than any of my competitors.
11. Both were adopted Korean girls, and because of this, felt almost like sisters.
12. He has attained superstar status, he has achieved a massive following and, consequently, he now has power, success and unlimited money.
13. The love affair itself never comes alive. Consequently, the novel's moral
dilemmas fail to grip.
14. 50,000 tourists visit the region annually. As a consequence, tourist traffic must be regulated and subjected to very tight restrictions.
15. Alice had to take four sleeping pills before she could get back to sleep and as a consequence failed, for the first time in her life, to turn up for a 7,00 am call.
16. Once Alastair got so carried away that he attempted to speak through his snorkel, and nearly drowned in consequence.
17. The Party identified itself with the welfare and happiness of people. It was in consequence trusted by the people.
18. Peace is not secured by alienating people, but rather by uniting them.
19. Accordingly, the goal is to learn to live together in tolerance and mutual understanding.
20. The financing of social services affects everybody. They are, accordingly, the object of much heated discussion by economists and politicians.
21. Linguistics, then, is the field which classifies the pronunciation, grammar, meaning and use of language and hence provides terminology to talk about these matters
22. She hit the soldier's outstretched arm, and thereby saved the life of a demonstrator whom he was about to shoot at point-blank range.
23. Smokers stay longer in hospital, thereby depriving non-smoking patients of treatment.
24. "I'm sure all the obvious methods have been checked."— "In that case there's not much I can do."
* возможно вам будет интересно познакомиться с некоторыми результатами дипломного исследования показателей выводного знания в английском языке. Дипломная работа выполнена О.В. Тарасенко (10.06.2004) на кафедре английской филологии ф-та РГФ, ВГУ.
Как показал анализ:
1. Показатели выводного знания (therefore, thus, hence), обнаруживают стилистические предпочтения, а именно, чаще всего употребляются в научно-публицистической литературе.
a) Что касается частотности употребления рассматриваемых маркеров, то в текстах научно публицистического стиля Therefore (122) употребляется в 1,5 раза чаще чем Thus (81) и в 13 раз чаще чем Hence (9). В свою очередь, Thus в 9 раз чаще, чем Hence.
b) В текстах научного стиля предпочтения отдаются маркеру Thus 19, который употребляется в 1,1 раза чаще, чем Therefore (16) и в 19 раз чаще, чем Hence (1).
c) Анализ текстов сообщений на научных конференциях, выделенный нами как отдельный жанр (выступления), показал, что Therefore - 6 употребляется в 2 раза чаще, чем Thus - 3 и в 3 раза чаще, чем Hence - 2.
d) Характерно, что в текстах художественной литературы, особенно диалогической речи, и звучащей речи нам не удалось обнаружить случаев выражения выводного знания при помощи therefore, thus, hence. В качестве ПВЗ выступают so, and, then, in that case, in which case и др. наряду с паравербальными средствами (интонация, пауза, акцент).
Ср. Either I know ту job, in which case I shall know the answer to your questions. Or else I do not know my job, in which case I probably should not be here.
Exercise 3.
A: Study the cause and its effect. Fill in the gaps in the sentences below, relating to the above mentioned facts.
СAUSE: The government's disastrous economic policies.
EFFECT: A drastic decline in the government's popularity.
The government’s economic policy has been disastrous:___________ a drastic decline in
its popularity.
_, government’s popularity has declined drastically.
______ has led to________.
______ the result________.
_____________.______, its popularity has declined drastically.
______ as a result_____.
The consequence_________.
because________.
B: Write as many sentences or sentences pairs as possible expressing the causal relationship between the two facts.
The following linking devises may appear in your sentences: because, led, caused, so, owing, effect, result(ed), due, reason, therefore, consequently, consequence, by, of, to, as.
CAUSE EFFECT
Noun phrase
Great demand for accommodation higher rents
cause
demand for accommodation rents have risen
has increased
Exercise 5. Complete the following letter.
Hillside Cottage, Tumbledown Row, Old South Downe 28 February
Dear Sir,
I’m writing to you we have still not received a reply to a letter we
wrote to you more than two weeks ago. I regret to say that I am still not satisfied with the work done by your company.
Your workmen came yesterday you sent them to rectify their
mistakes. They did, in fact, attempt to repair the roof, and............................... this has been
done I should feel happier. However, they made no attempt to replumb the extension I am still extremely dissatisfied.
They say they have done the plumbing, and there are pipes under
the floorboards, this is true, but these pipes do not work. My suspicion is that they
have not been correctly joined, and we have buckets ready................................ water starts
dripping through the floor of the extension down into our living room! In addition we
have switched the electricity off.................................... the faulty wiring causes a fire!
We are looking forward to hearing your comments on this.
Yours faithfully,
Mrs B.O'Brien
BODGER & SON
ALL FALLE DOWNE
Tom - please pass this message on to Dick and Harry. Mrs O'Brien has written again
- please put your work right immediately................................ she stops writing to me. I've
been to see the extension in question and I agree with what she's said. She's........................
dissatisfied that I wouldn’t be surprised if she took us to court - but I don’t blame her -
the work is............. bad............. we'll all be out of a job if you don't do better! It was
.................. a straightforward job.................................... I can't believe such a mistake
has been made.
So please get things sorted out,...........................I’ll have to see Dick and Harry myself.
Please get in touch with them immediately.
A.Bodger
1.6. PURPOSE
1. He went to France to learn French.
2. He sent his sons to a boarding school in order/so as to have some piece. (He, not his sons, was going to have some peace.)
Compare:
He sent his sons to a boarding school to learn to live in a community. (Not he but his sons were to learn to live in a community.)
He sent a telex in order/so as not to waste time.
3. They left the door open in order for me to hear the baby.
4. I have lit the fire in order that/so that the house will be warm when they return.
I recorded the match so that I could watch it later.
Criminals usually telephone from public telephone boxes so that the police wan't/can 't/don’t trace the call.
He changed his name so that his new friends wouldn’t/couldn't/shouldn't know that he had once been accused of murder.
5. Computers are used for processing information.
I went to the shop for some bread.
6. I lived in the city centre to avoid being too far from my job.
She locked herself in her room to prevent him (from) disturbing her.
7. I always keep candles in the house
in case there is a power cut.
They left early for fear that they would meet him.
1. to-infnitive clauses are most frequently used to express purpose.
2. so as / in order are not very common. They are used when there is a personal object but we want the infinitive to refer unambiguously to the subject.
However it is more usual to say: He sent his sons to a boarding school because he wanted to have some peace.
In order/so as construction is essential with a negative infinitive to express a negative purpose.
3. in order for...to can be used when the subject of the infinitive clause is different from the subject of the main clause.
4. in order that (more formal)/ so that clauses are necessary when the person to whom the purpose refers is different from the subject of the main clause, or when the original subject is stated again.
When the main verb is in a present or future tense will/can/may(form.)/ shall(form.) or present simple are used in the subordinate clause.
When the main verb is in a past tense woulil/could/niight/should are used.
5. The purpose which something serves for (general purpose) is often indicated by for+-ing-form or a noun).
6. avoid+ing-form (verbal noun), or pre- vent+0+from+ing-form are used to express negative purpose.
7. In case and for fear that are used to refer to an action carried out as a precaution against something.
Exercise 1. Purpose clauses: SO AS, IN ORDER, so THAT, IN ORDER THAT, IN CASE, FOR FEAR THAT. Combine each of the following pairs of sentences into one sentence.
Example: He turned out the light. He didn’t want to waste electricity. He turned out the light so as not to waste electricity.
1. He tied a knot in his handkerchief. He hoped that this would remind him to meet the train.
2. He killed the men who helped him to bury the treasure. He wanted nobody but himself to know where it was.
3. He left his rifle outside. He didn't want to frighten his wife.
4. We had no cups but he gave us coconut shells. He said we could drink out of them.
5. He rushed into the burning house. He wanted to save the child.
6. He read only for short periods each day. He didn't want to strain his eyes.
7. The farmer put a scarecrow up in the Field. He wanted to frighten the birds.
8. The boys are collecting sticks. They intend to put them on the fire.
9. He changed his address constantly. He wanted to elude the police.
10. They evacuated everybody from the danger zone. They wanted to reduce the risk.
11.He sent his children to his sister’s house. He wanted them to watch the television programme.
12. The town council has forbidden coal fires. They are trying to keep the air clean.
13. He invented a wife and six children. By this trick he hoped to avoid paying income tax.
14. He didn't tell her he was going up in the spacecraft. He didn’t want to alarm her.
15. Put the cork back. Someone may knock the bottle over.
16. The airfield authorities have put arc lights over the damaged runway. They want repair work to continue day and night.
17. You ought to take some serum with you. You may get bitten by a snake.
18. We keep a spade in this house. There may be a heavy fall of snow in the night.
19. We put bars on the lower windows. We didn’t want anyone to climb in.
20. You should carry a jack in your car. You may have a puncture.
21.She tied a bell round her cat's neck. She wanted the birds to know when he was approaching.
22.1 have put wire over my chimney pots. I don't want birds to build nests in them.
23. The burglar cut the telephone wires. He didn't want me to call the police.
24.The manufacturers have made the taps of their new gas cooker very stiff.
They don't want young children to be able to turn them on.
15. Never let children play with matches. They may set themselves on fire.
26. The debate on education has been postponed. The government want to discuss the latest crisis.
27. The policeman stopped the traffic every few minutes. He wanted the pedestrians to be able to cross the road.
28. Barbara jammed on the brakes. She didn’t want to run over the cat. (for fear)
29. The police have barricaded the main streets, because they didn’t want the demonstrators to march through the town. (prevent)
10. There’s no sense boring you any longer with the exercise, so it’s the last sentence. (avoid)
1.7. RELATIVE CLAUSES
Relative clauses are introduced with a) relative pronouns (who(m), which, whose, that, what) and b) relative adverbs (when, where, why).
We use who to refer to people, which to refer to objects or animals and that, whose to refer to both categories.
Whom is very unusual, especially in informal English, and is generally omitted or replaced with who, except when the pronoun is preceded by a preposition. Then whom (for people) or which (for things) should be used.
Whose is used to show possession.
Where refers to a place, when refers to time and why - to a reason
Which can refer back to a whole clause. In this case it is separated with comma.
Examples:
That’s the man who you met yesterday. It was a day when everything seemed to go wrong.
The woman who/ that is crossing the road is my mother-in-law.
The dog which/ that is lying over there is mine.
The only people with whom he could discuss the plan were those who knew of it already.
This is something for which you must constantly be on the lookout.
She works for a company whose chief executive has been arrested for fraud. Mr Brown, whose son broke our window when playing football, called me yesterday.
The hotel (where) / (which...at) we
stayed at was so lovely.
Is there any reason why he can't come?
I won’t do that;, which will certainly make her upset.
Who, which, that can be omitted when they function as the object of the relative clause. The relative cannot be omitted if it is the subject of the relative clause.
Whose cannot be omitted.
What* means 'the thing that'. (*Such clauses are also often qualified as nottn-clauses)
There are two types of relative clauses: defining (identifying) and nondefining (non-identifying).
A defining relative clause gives necessary information, essential to the meaning of the main clause. That’s why it cannot be omitted. It is not put in commas. This clause is introduced with who, which, that, whose, where, when, why, who, which, that can be omitted (when they function as the object). Where can be omitted when there is a preposition.
When and why can either be replaced by that or can be omitted.
Which and that are often interchangeable. In defining clauses, however, that is commonly used instead of which after superlatives, every (thing), all, only, some(thing), any(thing), no(thing), none, little, few and much. A non-defining relative clause is introduced with who, whom, which, whose, where, when. They cannot be omitted or replaced by that.
Sometimes the same clause can be both types: defining (identifying) and nondefining (non-identifying), but with a different meaning.
The book (that) I told you about is on sale now.
He that travels far knows much.
I’ll explain what he said.
What I like for breakfast is hot buttered toast.
A philatelist is a man who/ that collects stamps
That’s the church we were married at.
There must be some reason why he looked pleased.
The reason that they liked the restaurant was its anonymity.
That is the reason I asked you.
It was the strangest case that had ever come to Dr Martin’s notice. No disorder that he had read about had such bizarre symptoms.
My cat, which I found in the street, is called Monty.
My daughter(,) who works in New York(y) is getting married soon:
1) I have several daughters and 1 mean the one in New York (= defining);
2) I’m proud of the fact that she works in New York and I want to stress it (= non-defining).
in non-defining clauses, determiners like some, all, neither, none, (a) few, (a) little, both, most, much and several, superlatives and expressions of quantity can be used with of whom (for peple) and of which (for things).
They'll introduce you to a lot of people, most of whom you’ll forget immediately.
I was offered lamb and chicken, neither of which I like.
Exercise I. Underline the relative pronouns in the following sentences. Say whether each relative pronoun is a subject or an object.
1. The other law that affects your time is one you’ve heard for years.
2. Pick an hour of the day when you feel your best.
3. Just tell... those with whom you deal outside the company that you are not available for that specific hour...
4. Once people who work with you get the idea they will plan to see you before your quiet hour begins.
5. You will be more and more enthusiastic... when you realize the amount of work that you will accomplish during this hour.
6. I must've left my keys in the shop where we bought the bread.
7.She’s the only person that knows how to operate the computer.
8. Don’t look now! That's the man whose car I backed into.
9. He's the funniest comedian that I’ve ever seen.
10. Give me one good reason why I should trust you.
Exercise 2. Complete the following sentences with a suitable relative or a relative clause.
1. Alexander Fleming was the man..................... penicillin.
2. ’Candy' is the word............................ when the British would say ’sweet’.
3. Bats are the only mammals..................................
4. Burkino Faso is a country....................... Upper Volta.
5. Santa Maria was the name of the ship................... in 1492.
6. The FIFA World cup is a tournament.................... four years,
7. Nobody knows the reason.............................. dinosaurs died out 65 million years
ago.
8. David Copperfield is one of the best-known books............................... wrote.
Examples: 1-b: I'll pay for what I broke', 2-f: What I need is a drink.
BEGINNINGS | ENDS |
1) Г11 pay for 2) I need 3) Did you read about 4) He just teaches you 5) I want to know 6) The dog can have 7) The holiday wasn't at all 8) They hadn’t got 9) You misunderstood - that isn’t 10) You said | a) happened to poor Harry? b) I broke. c) I don't eat. d) I expected. e) I meant. f) is a drink. g) made me very happy. h) she asked for. i) is where's my car gone? j) you already know. |
Exercise 4. Put in which or what
1 She cycles to work every day,______ keeps her healthy.
2 I very much liked_____ you said at the meeting.
3 They gave me_____ I asked for.
4 The lights suddenly went out,______ frightened Granny terribly.
5 This is_____ I need.
6 Everybody arrived late,______ didn't surprise me in the least.
7 The door was locked,_____ was a nuisance.
8 He wouldn’t tell me_____ I wanted to know,
9 She let me borrow one of her dresses,______ was very kind of her.
10 We’re going to have to repair the roof,______ will cost a fortune.
Exercise 5. Join the beginnings and ends combining a) meaningful sentences b) proverbs. Translate the proverbs into Russian.
a)
BEGINNINGS | ENDS |
a) All the poetry | I) that happened. |
b) At school I learnt | 2) that he wrote was de |
nothing | stroyed in a fire. |
c) I've told you every | 3) that she said made any dif |
thing | ference. |
d) Nothing | 4) that was ever made. |
e) It’s the best western | 5) that I could get. |
film |
|
f) The most useful | 6) that was useful to me. |
thing |
|
g) This is the only hire | 7) that you can do is leave |
car | now. |
Дата добавления: 2015-09-29; просмотров: 35 | Нарушение авторских прав
| <== предыдущая лекция | | | следующая лекция ==> |