General classification of syntactic expressive means and stylistic devices

Syntax is the branch of language science studying the relations between words, word combinations and larger kinds of utterance. According to Galperin there're four groups of syntactic expressive means and stylistic devices:

1. Compositional patterns of syntactic arrangements (stylistic conversion, detached constructions, parallel constructions, chiasmus, repetition, enumeration, suspense, climax, antithesis)

2. Particular ways of combining parts of the utterrance (asyndenton, polysyndenton, the gap-sentence link)

3. Particular use of colloquial constructions (ellypses, break-in-the-narrative, question-in-the-narrative, uttered/unuttered speech)

4. Stylistic use of structural meaning (rhetorical question litotes).

Unlike other synthetic expressive means of the language which are used in discourse, syntactic stylistic devices are proceded as design aimed and having a designed impact on the reader. When parallel constructions are used in a dialogue, - it is an expressive means, when in the author's speech - a stylistic device. Structural syntactic stylistic devices are always in special relations with the intonation involved. The more explicity structural syntactic relations are expressed, the weaker will be the intonation pattern, up to disapperance and vice verse. The capacity to serve as a connection is a inherent quality of a great number of words and perhaps if there're set in a position, which calls for continuation or description of an event. To follow closely how parts of an utterance are connected and to verify interdependence between its parts is often different either because of the abscence of identical signs (asyndoton) or because of the present of too many identical signs (polysyndoton). Emotional syntactic structures typical for the oral variety of the language are sometimes very effectively used to depict the emotional state of mind of the characters. They may even be used in particular cases in the narrative of the author, and they have the same feature. When such constructions have entered the monologue, they assume qualities of a stylistic device. On analogy with transparence of meaning in which words are used other than in their logical sense, syntactic structures may also be used in the meanings other than their primary. Every syntactic structure has its function, called its structural meaning. When the structural is used in some other function, it may be said to assume a new meaning which is similar to lexical transfered meaning.

Repetition as a stylistic device is a direct successor of repetition as an expressive language means, which serves to emphasize certain statements of the speaker, and so possesses considerable emotive force.

As to the position occupied by the repeated unit in the sentence or utterance, we shall mention four main types, most frequently occurring in English literature:

1) anaphora – the repetition of the first word of several succeeding sentences or clauses (a …, a …, a …); 2) epiphora – the repetition of the final word (… a, … a, … a); 3) anadiplosis or catch repetition – the repetition of the same unit (word or phrase) at the end of the preceding and at the beginning of the sentence (…a, a …); The combination of several catch repetitions produces a chain repetition. 4) framing or ring repetition – the repetition of the same unit at the beginning and at the end of the same sentence (a …, … a). Repetition emphasizes the most important part of the utterance, rendering the emotions of the speaker or showing his emotive attitude towards the object described.

I would like to say about anaphora and give some examples:

Anaphora (an-NAF-ruh): Figure of repetition that occurs when the first word or set of words in one sentence, clause, or phrase is/are repeated at or very near the beginning of successive sentences, clauses, or phrases; repetition of the initial word(s) over successive phrases or clauses.

Examples:

" That my heart has been troubled, that I have not sought this nomination, that Icould not seek it in good conscience, that I would not seek it in honest self-appraisal, is not to say that I value it the less. Rather, it is that I revere the office of the Presidency of the United States."

-- Adlai Stevenson, 1952 DNC Presidential Nomination Acceptance Address

"To raise a happy, healthy, and hopeful child, it takes a family; it takes teachers; it takes clergy; it takes business people; it takes community leaders; it takes those who protect our health and safety. It takes all of us."

-- Hillary Clinton, 1996 Democratic National Convention Address

" What we need in the United States is not division. What we need in the United States is not hatred. What we need in the United States is not violence and lawlessness; but is love and wisdom and compassion toward one another, and a feeling of justice toward those who still suffer within our country whether they be white or whether they be black."

Syntagmatics

– linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech as distinct from associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in language.

Paradigmatics – 1) associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in language as distinct from linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech (syntagmatics); relation of units in absentia (e.g. synonymic, antonymic relationships); 2) an approach to language when the elements of its system are regarded as associated units joined by oppositional relationship.

Syntagmatics (also called syntagmatic plane), one of two aspects of the study of language, as contrasted to paradigmatics. Syntagmatics studies linguistic units in their syntagmatic relations, which link such units within an utterance.The contrast between syntagmatics and paradigmatics reflects the contrast between two forms of the existence (function) of linguistic units: in a system (language) and in a text (speech). In syntagmatics the units of a language are not regarded as equal and interchangeable but as determined by their position. In paradigmatics, the relationship between any two elements is one of the opposition of linguistic units in their associative bonds, whereas in syntagmatics such a relationship is one of the contrast of linguistic units in their linear bonds. The distinguishability of units in paradigmatics is absolute, whereas in syntagmatics it is relative: in syntagmatics the units are distinct in some positions and partially or wholly converge in others.In syntagmatics, the linguistic units of both the expression plane and the content plane are studied. In contrast to the positional order of formal units, the order of semantic units is determined by context. The concepts of position and context are basic in the theory of syntagmatics. The term “syntagmatics” is sometimes used in a narrower sense to refer to a division of syntax that is concerned with word groups (syntagms in a narrow sense).

12 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NOUN

The noun is the central lexical unit of language. It is the main nominative unit of speech. As any other part of speech, the noun can be characterised by three criteria: semantic (the meaning), morphological (the form and grammatical catrgories) and syntactical (functions, distribution).

Semantic features of the noun. The noun possesses the grammatical meaning of thingness, substantiality. According to different principles of classification nouns fall into several subclasses:

· According to the type of nomination they may be proper and common;

· According to the form of existence they may be animate and inanimate. Animate nouns in their turn fall into human and non-human.

· According to their quantitative structure nouns can be countable and uncountable.

This set of subclasses cannot be put together into one table because of the different principles of classification.

Morphological features of the noun. In accordance with the morphological structure of the stems all nouns can be classified into: simple,derived (stem + affix, affix + stem – thingness); compound (stem+ stem – armchair) and composite (the Hague). The noun has morphological categories of number and case. Some scholars admit the existence of the category of gender.

Syntactic features of the noun. The noun can be used un the sentence in all syntacticfunctions but predicate. Speaking about noun combinability, we can say that it can go into right-hand and left-hand connections with practically all parts of speech. That is why practically all parts of speech but the verb can act as noun determiners. However, the most common noun determiners are considered to be articles, pronouns, numerals, adjectives and nouns themselves in the common and genitive case.

16. Phraseology, classification of phraseological units. Vinogradov’s classification of phraseological units:

a) phraseological combinations (сочетания). b) unities (единства). c) fussions (сокращения).

a) phraseological combinations - are word - groups with a partially changed meaning. They may be said to be clearly motivated, that is the meaning of the units can be easily deduced from the meanings of its constituents.

Ex. to be good at smth., to have a bite….

b) unities - are word - groups with a completely changed meaning, that is, the meaning of the unit doesn’t correspond to the meanings of its constituent parts.

Ex. to loose one’s head (to be out of one’s mind), to loose one’s heart to smb.(to fall in love).

c) fussions - are word - groups with a completely changed meaning but, in contrast to the units, they are demotivated, that is, their meaning can’t be deduced from the meanings of its constituent parts.

Ex. to come a cropper(to come to disaster).

The Koonin’s classification is the latest outstanding achievement in the Russian theory of phraseology. The classification is based on the combined structural - semantic principle and it also considers the quotient of stability of phraseological units.

I. Nominative phraseological units - are represented by word - groups, including the ones with one meaningful word, and coordinative phrases of the type wear and tear, well and good.

II. Nominative - communicative phraseological units - include word - groups, of the type to break the ice - the ice is broken, that is, verbal word - groups which are transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the Passive Voice.

III. Phraseological units - which are neither nominative nor communicative include interjectional word - groups.

IV. Communicative phraseological units - are represented by proverbs and sayings.

Дата добавления: 2015-11-16