THE DEFINITIONS TO KNOW….

THE ABSOLUTE TIME expresses the degree the time of the described situation correlates to the moment of speaking. It indicates when the action takes place either at the moment of speaking or earlier or after it. Usually we distinguish three main correlations. Present tense — the action takes places at the moment of speaking; Past tense — the action proceeds the moment of speaking; Future tense — the action follows the moment of speaking

THE ADJECTIVE is a notional part of speech which expresses the categorial semantics of property of a substance. It means that each adjective presupposes relation to some noun the property of whose referent it denotes, such as its material, colour, dimensions, position, and other characteristics both permanent and temporary.

THE ADVERB is a notional word expressing a non-substantive property, that is, a property of a non-substantive referent (=verb). Properties may be of a more particular, ("organic" order) and a more general and detached, ("inorganic" order). Of the organic properties, the adverb denotes those characterising processes and other properties. Of the inorganic properties, the adverb denotes various circumstantial characteristics of processes or whole situations built around processes. Example He speaks (how?) fluently. (= the property of the process of speaking)He usually (how often?)goes for a walk in the evening. (the circumstantial characteristics of process of walking)

THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER is the secondary part of a sentence, expresing the second properties of the action or the state presented by the verb(place, time, purpose, manner, reason, etc). Usually expressed by the adverb. As the averbial modifiers may be seen verbal adjectives, objective cases of the nouns and the infinitive. The substantial difference between the adverbial modifier and the object may be seen in the fact that each type of the object corresponds to one specific syntactic position opened by the peculiar verbal governing which allows the usage of the names with coordinating connection only " I read these books. At the same time the adverbial modifiers may correspond to several syntactic positions — In summer, from the end of July to the end of August I was having rest in the resort house, on the Black sea.

THE ATTRIBUTE is the dependent secondary part of sentence. It is grammatically connected to the defined noun and is designed to indicate the property of the described object. Except the nouns the attributes may define other parts of sentence like the Predicate (nominative predicative). Closely connected with the adverbial modifiers of manner expressing the property of the process described by the Predicate. (to run quickly –a quick run; to act hastily – a hasty act)

THE CASE is the category of a noun expressing relations between the thing denoted by the noun and other things, or properties, or actions, and manifested by some formal sign in the noun itself.

THE CATEGORY OF MOOD is the verbal category which expresses a certain modality of the sentence. In other words is the verbal category expressing the speakers attitude to a certain real situation. Traditionally they distinguish three types of mood: the Indicative Mood, the Imperative Mood, The Subjunctive Mood.

THE CATEGORY OF TENSE — grammatical category denoting the correspondence between the time described in the situation and the moment of speaking taken as the starting point or some other time taken as the starting point.The moment of speaking taken as the starting point is known as the absolute time

THE CATEGORY OF VOICE is the verbal category which expresses the direction of the process as regards the participants of the situation reflected in the syntactic construction. They distinguish the Active Voice and the Passive Voice. Some linguists find the grounds to distinguish the third voice as well the Middle Voice (verb+ reflective pronoun). The Active Voice expresses the actions performed by the doer or source of the action. The forms of the Predicate clearly show that the action comes from the Subject. The Passive Voice expressed the action directed to the person or objected presented by the Subject. The Middle Voice may be defined in the context only. The reflexive meaning is determined by the special contextual surrounding created by the reflexive pronoun with the second meaning (of the functional word)

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE is a composite sentence built on the principle of coordination. Coordination, the same as subordination, can be expressed either syndetically (by means of coordinative connectors) or asyndetically. The main semantic relations between the clauses connected coordinatively are copulative, adversative, disjunctive, causal, consequential, resultative. THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE is a grammatical and lexical unit consisting of two or more predicative lines. Being a polypredicative construction, it expresses an act of mental activity which falls into two or more intellectual efforts closely combined with one another. In terms of situations and events this means that thecomposite sentence reflects two or more elementary situational events viewed as making up a unity; Composite sentences display two principal types of construction: hypotaxis (subordination) and parataxis (coordination).

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. As a rule it includes two clauses — a principal one and a subordinate one. Although the principal clause positionally dominates the subordinate clause,

THE DEEP STRUCTURE OF SENTENCE is an abstract model of some syntactical relations between defined by the valency of the finite verb. So, actually we may see under the deep structure the relations between the finite verb and its arguments. Some of the relations are obligatory (according to the valency) and some are optional.

THE DEPENDANT TENSE FORM is the tense form that can’t correspond to the moment of speaking.

DERIVATELY MADE WORD-COMBINATIONS —word-combinations, originally connected with some sentences, designed to express the whole situation.(fine weather –the weather is fine, the students work, sweet sugar –the sugar is sweet)

DISTRIBUTION of a unit is s the total of all its environments. Three main types of distribution are discriminated in the distributional analysis, namely, contrastive distribution, non-contrastive distribution, and complementary distribution. The morphs are said to be in contrastive distribution if their meanings (functions) are different in the same surrounding. Cf. the suffixes -(e)d and -ing in the verb-forms returned, returning. In other words, if different morphs have different meanings put in the same surrounding we observe contrastive distribution. The morphs are said to be in non-contrastive distribution (or free alternation) if their meaning (function) is the same Cf. the suffixes -(e)d and -t in the verb-forms learned, learnt. In other words, if different morphs have the same meaning in the same surrounding we observe non- contrastive distribution. The morphs are said to be in complementary distribution if two or more morphs have the same meaning and the difference in their form is explained by different environments, They are considered to be the allomorphs of the same morpheme. In other words, if different morphs put in the different surroundings have the same meaning, we observe complementary distribution.

GRAMMAR is the part of language designed to study and describe the processes of word-building and word-changing (morphology).Also it is to study kinds of word-combinations and types of sentences.(syntax). As any linguistic description, grammar may have a practical or theoretical purpose. The aim of practical grammar of a language is to provide the student with a manual of practical mastery of the corresponding part of language. The aim of theoretical grammar of a language is to present a theoretical description of its grammatical system, i.e. to scientifically analyse and define its grammatical categories and study the mechanisms of grammatical formation of utterances out of words in the process of speech making.

THE GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY is the set of certain paradigmatic correlations of some grammatical forms.

THE GRAMMATICAL FORM — is a specific language sign to express the grammatical meaning by means of some grammatical index.

THE GRAMMATICAL MEANING is the meaning, typical for some specific grammatical class of words, usually expressed through some grammatical index (or indices).

THE GRAMMATICAL OPPOSITION is the paradigmatic correlation of two grammatical forms in a grammatical category. The correlated elements (members) of the opposition must possess two types of features: common features and differential features

THE GRAMMATICAL PARADYGM is a productive series of grammatical forms each consisting of a syntagmatic connection of two grammatical forms where one common for the whole of the series (stem), the other specific for every individual form in the series

THE GRAMMEME — The set of words united by one grammatical form.For instance, works-sleeps-goes-passes-is, etc

THE INDEPENDENT TENSE FORM. is the tense form that correspond to the moment of speaking.

IC-MODEL is formally presented linguistic scheme which designed to expose the binary hierarchical principle of subordinate connections, showing the whole structure of the sentence as made up by binary immediate constituents.

LANGUAGE is means of forming, storing and transmitting ideas as reflections of reality and exchanging them in the process of human intercourse.

THE LEXEME — The set of all grammatical forms of a word united by the same lexical meaning. For instance, book-books; Work-works-worked-has worked—is working, etc

MODALITY — is the reflexion of some part of reality including some personal speaker’s attitude. Modality may be expressed both by verbs(semi-notional and functional) and some functional words(modal words). Modality is expressed through the category of mood.

MONOPREDICATIVE(simple) SENTENCE — the sentence containing one predicative line.

THE MORPHEME — The elementary meaningful part of the word. It is built up by phonemes, so that the shortest morphemes include only one phoneme. The morph is actual phonetic representation of the morpheme. The allomorph is a linguistics term for a variant form of a morpheme. The concept occurs when a unit of meaning can vary in sound (phonologically) without changing meaning. For instance, the morpheme plural suffix has the morph "-s", /s/, (in cats), but "-es"(in dishes),- en (in children)These are allomorphs.

MORPHOLOGY is the part of grammar which concentrates on studying words and their significant parts (morphemes). The ultimate goal of morphology is to define a word as specific language unit and to give the description of its inner structure. Besides, morphology is designed not only to describe the formal properties of words (together with their morphemes) but analyse the grammatical meanings, presented within the word (so-called morphological meanings)

THE NOMINATIVE MEANING OF THE SENTENCE— the way the nominative parts of the sentence refer to the basic elements of reflected situation

THE NOUN is the main nominative part of speech, effecting nomination of the fullest value within the framework of the notional division of lexicon.

NUCLEAR WORD-COMBINATION (NWC) —grammatically organized structure where one element dominates the other, seeing as the nucleus of the word-combination (new books, a book of poems, to see a man, awfully beautiful) tc. Nuclear word-combinations are divided into nuclear regressive, nuclear progressive and nuclear centered When the dependent word follows the head word the NWC is seen as regressive. When the dependent word proceeds the head word the NWC is seen as progressive. When there are more than one dependent word and they are to surround the head one the NWC is seen as centered.

NUCLEAR FREE WORD-COMBINATION — the word-combination or group of words, different in morphological structure but connected with each other by either the relation of subordination or coordination. (wise, youngish; he laughed, ladies and gentlemen)

THE OBJECT - the secondary part of a sentence which expresses the object of the action. It is usually to determine the Predicate. If the Predicate is presented by transitive verb, the object is used to specify the direction of the action expressed by the verb.. Describing the same situation of the reality, a verb can be oriented on the different "participants"(cf. t o unload the coal from the carriage and to upload the carriage).

OBJECTIVITY — the ability of the verb to take any object.

ORIGINALLY MADE WORD-COMBINATIONS —word-combinations, originally not connected with some sentences, designed to express not the whole but just the fragment of the situation. Divided by the head word into nominal, verbal, adjectival and adverbal.

THE PARADIGMATIC RELATIONS are relations between elements of the system outside the strings where they co-occur. They mostly may be presented in a set or series of connections based on different formal and functional properties.

PARTS OF SPEECH are grammatically relevant sets of classes characterising by specific semantic, formal features and playing some specific role in a sentence

THE PHONEME — minimal formal significant material language unit. Has no meaning. Differentiates morphemes and words as material bodies. Since the phoneme has no meaning, it is not a sign. In writing presented by letters (in the form of graphemes). Phonemes are combined into syllables.

POLYPREDICATIVE (composite) SENTENCE — the sentence containing more than one predicative line.

PREDICATION is the reflexion of some part of reality presented through the process denoted in the sentence by the notional verb. Predication is presented in the following verbal categories: the category of tense; the category of voice; The category of aspect

THE PREDICATE is the main part of a sentence, describing the property of the object, presented by the Subject. The Predicate is the source of predicativeness in a sentence what distinguishes a sentence from a word and word-combination. The Predicate makes up the functional minimum of a sentence. Usually expresses grammatical categories, characterizing the sentence as it is suggestion (the category of mood, tense, voice). Being a communicative centre of a sentence, the Predicate formally depends on the Subject correlating with it in number and person. They distinguish two types of the Predicate: 1 ) the simple (notional) and 2) compound (compound verbal and compound nominal) predicate.

THE PREDICATIVE LINE is the combination of the main parts of sentence –the Subject and the Predicate.

THE PREDICATIVE MEANING OF THE SENTENCE is the way real situation is presented in a sentence. It is mostly expressed by the finite verb taken the position of the Predicate.

PREDICATIVITY — the ability of the verb to reflect some part of reality through the denoted process or action or state.

THE RELATIVE TIME (THE TAXIS) is some other time taken as the starting point butnot the moment of speaking. The taxis expresses the degree the time of the described situationcorrelates not to the moment of speaking but to some other time or action. It may be expressed mostly by the verbals. Usually we distinguish the following taxis correlations: simultaneous actions ( while reading the book I enjoyed it a lot)and prior actions (having read the book I wrote a composition onto it)

THE SEMI –COMPOUND SENTENCE is a semi-composite sentence built up on the principle of coordination. Proceeding from the outlined grammatical analysis of the composite sentence, the structure of the semi-compound sentence is derivationally to be traced back to minimum two base sentences having an identical element belonging to one or both of their principal syntactic positions, i.e. either the subject, or the predicate, or both.

THE SEMI COMPOSITE SENTENCE is to be defined as a sentence with more than one predicative lines which are expressed in fusion. For the most part, one of these lines can be identified as the leading or dominant, the others making the semi-predicative expansion of the sentence

THE SENTENCE is a grammatical and lexical unit consisting of one or more words, representing distinct and differentiated concepts, and combined to form a meaningful statement, question, request, command, etc

Sentences contain both semantic and logical elements (words, parts of speech), and also include action symbols that indicate sentence starts, stops, pauses, etc.

THE STATIVES is a lexemic set which claims to be recognised as a separate part of speech, in its class-forming features. These are words built up by the prefix a- and denoting different states, mostly of temporary duration. Here belong lexemes like afraid, agog, adrift, ablaze. In traditional grammar these words were generally considered under the heading of "predicative adjectives" since their most typical position in the sentence is that of a predicative and they are but occasionally used as pre-positional attributes to nouns as well.

THE SUBJECT is the main part of a sentence, presenting the doer of the action or the object determined by some properties or states. Usually expressed by the nouns, taken in its nominative case, substantivised pronouns(I, he, someone) numerals(the two, the five), and also substintivised adjectives(the blind, the poor), the gerund (his arriving), infinitive(to read is his passion), etc.

THE SURFACE STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE is a set of function-expressing positions filled with such parts of the simple sentence as the subject, the predicate, the object, the attribute and the modifiers. The parts are arranged in a hierarchy, so we distinguish the main and the secondary parts of the simple sentence. The basis of the surface structure — the reflection of some situational event.

THE SYLLABLE — a rhythmic segmental group of phonemes, is not a sign, either; it has a purely formal significance.

THE SYNTAGMATIC RELATIONS are immediate linear relations between units in a segmental sequence (string). It is how phonemes are connected within the morphems, morphems within words, words in their turn within word-combinations.

SYNTAX is the part of grammar which studies the order of connected speech and comprises of two main parts: the theory of word-combination; the theory of sentence. The main points to be discussed in syntax are the following:

— the ways words to connect in word-combinations and sentences; the main types of syntactic connections; the main kinds of word-combinations; the main types of sentences; “word-combination” and “sentence” as the central notions of syntax; The ways simple sentences to combine into composite ones;

TRANSFORMATIONAL MODEL is formally presented linguistic scheme designed to describe the connection between the deep and the surface structures as some process presented through the series of transformations Transformation is an explicit formula of some kind of model distinguished by the speakers of a certain language The main types of transformations: passive transformations,transformations of replacement; transformations of omission; transformations of nominalization;

TRANSITIVITY —the ability of the verb to take a direct object.

VALENCY — the number of arguments that a verb takes. Verbal valancy may be two types: obligatory and optional. The obligatory valency is such as must necessarily be realised for the sake of the grammatical completion of the syntactic construction E.g.: We saw a house in the distance. I give Peter a book.

THE VERB is a notional part of speech which denotes an action or the state of either the doer of the action or the object of the action.

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WORD — Different from the morpheme, is a directly naming (nominative) unit of language: it names things and their relations. Built of morphemes.

WORD-COMBINATION is a syntactical group, consisting of at least two notional words which are combined either into free word-combinations, predicative or prepositional structures and based either on the coordinative or subordinate relations.

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