Should1 and ought.

¹ Should was originally the past tense of shall, but in the course of its development it has acquired new shades of meaning.

The modal verbs should and ought are treated together here as there is hardly any difference between them. Very often they are interchangeable.

I ought to have married; yes, I should have married long ago. (Poittsma)

There is, however, a difference in construction. Whereas should is followed by the infinitive without the particle to, ought is always followed by the to- infinitive.

When reference is made to the present or future, the Indefinite Infinitive is used.

In wartime a man should not part with his rifle. (Heym)

It’s murder, and we ought to stop it. (London)

When reference is made to the past the Perfect Infinitive shows that the obligation was not carried out.

“You should have been here last night when they brought back the DP’s to

the mines,” said Yates. (Heym).

She ought to have known that the whole subject was too dangerous to discuss

at night. (Galsworthy)

I know that I was weak in yielding to my mother’s will. I should not have

done so. (London)

She had no nerves; he ought never to have married a woman eighteen years

younger than himself. (Galsworthy)

Should and ought are sometimes used with the Continuous Infinitive and the Perfect Continuous Infinitive.

You should be learning your lessons, Jack, and not talking with Mary.

You ought to be helping your mother with your salary and not squandering

your money.

He should have been trying to break through the isolation the hospital had set

around Thorpe, he should have been doing many things other than walking

along the Seine quay. (Heym)

Both should and ought express obligation, something which is advisable, proper or naturally expected.

1. Obligation, very often a moral obligation or. duty. In this meaning ought is more often used than should.

Martin’s hand instinctively closed on the piece of gold. In the same instant he

knew he oughtn’t to accept. (London).

Рука Мартина инстинктивно сжала золотую монету. В то же мгновение

он понял, что не должен принимать ее.

I promised her if ever the time came when she needed me, to be her friend.

Promises of that sort should never be broken. (Meade)

Я обещал ей, если когда-либо наступит момент, когда я буду нужен,

быть ее другом. Такие обещания никогда не должны нарушаться.

2. Advisability.

In this meaning should is more common than ought, as it always shows some personal interest whereas ought is more matter-of-fact.

You should be more careful. (London)

Вам следует быть осторожнее.

You ought to have Warmson to sleep in the house. (Galsworthy)

Нужно было бы, чтобы Уормсон спал у вас в доме.

3. Something which can be naturally expected.

It’s the last of the Madeira I had from Mr. Jolyon... it ought to be in prime-

condition still. (Galsworthy)

Это последняя бутылка мадеры, которую я получил от мистера

Джолиона... она должна быть еще в отличном состоянии.

If it’s a story by Wodehouse it should be amusing.

Если это рассказ Вудхауса, он должен быть забавным.

§ 6. То be + Infinitive.

То be + Infinitive is a modal expression. Some of its meanings are close to those of modal verbs and expressions denoting obligation (must, shall, should, ought, to have + Infinitive).

This modal expression can be used in two tenses — the Present Indefinite and the Past Indefinite (was, were).

Dear Jim, I am to be shot at sunrise tomorrow. (Voynich)

They were to go to Spain for the honeymoon. (Galsworthy)

To be + Infinitive expresses a weakened order, an arrangement, possibility, something thought of as unavoidable. The ways of rendering this expression in Russian differ in accordance with its meaning.

1. An order which is generally the result of an arrangement made by one person for another, an arrangement which is not to be discussed.

In this case only the Indefinite Infinitive is used.

You are to go straight to your room. You are to say nothing of this to anyone.

(De la Roche)

Ты должна идти прямо в свою комнату. Ты никому не должна ничего

говорить об этом.

Schlaghammer frowned. It was not up to him to judge Pettinger... but it was in

his province to interpret orders. He was to blast the entrances of the mine.

(Heym).

Шлагхаммер нахмурился. Не ему судить Петтингера, но толковать

приказы — это его право. Он должен взорвать все входы в шахту.

2. An arrangement, or agreement, part of a plan.

In this meaning both the Indefinite and the Perfect Infinitive can be used; the Perfect Infinitive shows that the action was not carried out.

I’m sorry, Major, we had an agreement — I was to do the questioning here.

(Heym)

Простите, майор, мы условились, что допрос буду вести я.

We were to meet at the entrance of the theatre at a quarter to eight. (mutual

arrangement)

Мы должны были встретиться у входа в театр без четверти восемь.

“Have you seen him?” Martini asked. “No, he was to have met me here the

next morning.” (Voynich)

«Вы его видели?» — спросил Мартини. «Нет, он должен был встретить меня здесь на следующее утро».

3. Possibility.

In this meaning the passive form of the Infinitive is used unless it is a question beginning with the interrogative adverb how. Here the meaning of the modal expression comes very close to that of the verb can.

For a long time neither was to be seen about their old haunts. (Dreiser)

В течение долгого времени их не видели в местах, где они обычно

бывали.

How are they to know that you are well connected if you do not show it by

your costume? (Shaw)

Как могут они знать, что у вас большие связи, если вы не показываете

этого своей манерой одеваться?

And he knew that higher intellects than those of the Morse circle were to be

found in the world. (London)

И он знал, что можно найти людей с более высоким интеллектом, чем у

тех, которые принадлежали к кругу Морзов.

4. Something thought of as unavoidable.

Sally wished Morris could be on the same terms of easy friendliness with her

as he was with everybody else. But evidently, it was not tobe. (Prichard)

Салли хотела, чтобы Моррис поддерживал с ней такие же простые

дружеские отношения, как и со всеми остальными. Но, очевидно, этому

не суждено было быть.

I went about brooding over my lot, wondering almost hourly what was to

become of me. (Dreiser)

Я все время размышлял о своей судьбе, беспрестанно задавая себе

вопрос, что со мной станет.

N o t e 1. — Sometimes when it is used after the conjunction if it has the same

meaning as the verb to want.

If we are to remain friends you must tell me the truth.

N o t e 2.— It should be borne in mind that the Russian questions ‘Как мне

быть?’, ‘Что мне делать?’ are rendered in English by the modal expression

What am I to do?

§ 7. To have + Infinitive.

The modal expression to have + Infinitive is used in three tense forms: the Present Indefinite, the Past Indefinite and the Future Indefinite.

I have to get up at six every day.

When water was rushing through the tents and everybody had to sleep in wet

blankets, it was treated as a joke. (Prichard)

I shall have to take the pupils into the hills, as usual, and see them settled

there. (Voynich)

The negative and interrogative forms of this modal expression areformed with the help of the auxiliary do.

Did you have to walk all the way home?

I did not have to walk,I took a tram.

Only the Indefinite Infinitive Active and Passive can be used in this modal expression.

I had imagined we should have to hold a large house-party for the occasion.

(Du Maurier)

I wouldn’t look through the letters — disappointment had to be postponed,

hope kept alive as long as possible. (Greene)

To have + Infinitive expresses an obligation or necessity arising out of circumstances. Its meaning is close to that of to be obliged. It is often rendered in Russian by приходится, должен, вынужден.

Bing knew that if Willoughby demanded it, he had to give the report. (Heym)

Бинг знал, что, если Уиллоуби этого требует, он должен дать отчет.

And if my father was fighting drunk sometimes he wouldn’t let us into the

house so that we had to stay out all night. (Walsh)

И если мой отец в пьяном виде дрался, он иногда не впускал нас в дом,

так что нам приходилось ночевать на улице.

Though both the modal expressions to be + Infinitive and to have + Infinitive express a shade of obligation or necessity, there is, a great difference in their meaning.

C o m p a r e:

As I was to be there at 5 sharp (part of an arrangement), I had to take a taxi

(necessity arising out of this arrangement).

Так как я должен был быть там ровно в пять, мне пришлось взять такси.

In colloquial English and especially in American English have, got + Infinitive is often used in the same meaning as have + Infinitive.

This modal expression is used in the Present Indefinite tense only.

Okay, we’ll beat ‘em to it. Dick, we’ve got to keep awake,we’ve got to

watch things and be ready. (Lindsay)

The negative and interrogative forms are formed without any auxiliary.

Have you got to do all this work yourself?

No, I have not got to work so much.

There is a tendency in Modern English to use got + Infinitive in the same meaning.

You can smile away till you split your cheeks, but you still got to do a day’s

work to earn a day’s wages, and apples don’t grow on monkey-trees.

(Lindsay)

N o t e. — Pay special attention to the difference between I have something to

tell you and I have to tell you something. In the latter case the speaker

expresses the necessity of telling something to somebody, whereas in the

former the verb to have preserves to a certain extent its meaning of possession

and the speaker merely states that he has something which he either wants or

must communicate to somebody. The difference in word order is caused by

the difference in the meaning of the verb to have. In the first case it is not a

modal verb, thus, have is a simple predicate, something is a direct object and

the infinitive is an attribute. In the second sentence have to tell is a modal

expression, so it is a compound verbal modal predicate and something is an

object to the infinitive.

Shall.

Shall is never a purely modal verb. It always combines its modal meaning with the function of an auxiliary expressing futurity.

It expresses determination on the part of the speaker, i. e. compulsion or order, threat or warning, promise.

As a rule shall as a modal verb is not translated into Russian, its meaning is rendered by emphatic intonation.

1. Compulsion or strict order.

In this meaning it is always used with the second and third persons and has a strong stress.

P a u l a. I’ve got to tell Mr. Tanqueray.

H u g h. By God, you shall do nothing of the sort. (Pinero)

П а у л а. Я должна сказать мистеру Тэнкери.

Х ь ю. Клянусь богом, вы этого не сделаете.

“She shall go off tomorrow, the little artful creature,” said Mrs. Sedley, with

great energy. (Thackeray)

«Она уедет завтра же, эта маленькая интриганка», — энергично заявила

миссис Седли.

In interrogative sentences shall is used in the first and third persons to inquire after the wish of the person addressed.

Shall Ishut the door, madam? (Dickens)

(Do you want me to shut the door?)

Закрыть дверь, сударыня?

Shall he go there?

(Do you want him to go there?)

Идти ему туда?

2. Threat or warning.

In this meaning it is also used in the second and third persons and with a weak stress.

“That’s the last time!” she cried. “You shall never see me again!” (Maugham)

«Это конец! — закричала она. — Вы никогда меня больше не

увидите!»

You shall repent of this neglect of duty, Mr. Gummer. (Dickens)

Вы еще раскаетесь в том, что пренебрегаете долгом, мистер Гаммер.

3. Promise.

It is also used with the second and third persons and with a weak stress.

Don’t be afraid, Jane, I saw it was an accident. You shall not be punished.

(Ch. Bronte)

He бойся, Джейн, я видела, что это произошло случайно. Тебя не

накажут.

I shall make you happy, see if I don’t. You shall do what you like, spend what

you like. (Thackeray)

Я сделаю вас счастливой, вот увидите. Вы будете делать что хотите и

тратить сколько хотите.

Will.

Will is hardly ever a purely modal verb. It generally combines its modal meaning with the function of an auxiliary expressing futurity.

The modal verb will expresses volition, intention on the part of the speaker, or insistence.

1. Volition, intention.

In most cases this meaning is rendered in Russian by emphatic intonation, but sometimes the verb хотеть is used. It is used with all persons but mostly with the first person.

“What is this? Who is this? Turn this man out. Clear the office!” cried Mr.

Fang. “I will speak,” cried the man. “I will not be turned out...” (Dickens)

«Что это? Кто это? Выставьте этого человека за дверь! Очистите

помещение!» — закричал мистер Фанг. «Нет, я буду говорить! —

крикнул человек. — Меня не выставят!»

Besides, since happiness is irrevocably denied me, I have a right to get

pleasure out of life: and I will get it, cost what it may. (E. Bronte)

Кроме того, раз счастье для меня невозможно, я вправе получать от

жизни удовольствия; и я буду получать их, чего бы это ни стоило.

Tell Mr. Osborne it is a cowardly letter, sir, a cowardly letter — I will not

answer it. (Thackeray)

Скажите мистеру Осборну, что это трусливое письмо, сэр, трусливое; я

на него не отвечу.

Very often will is used after the conjunction if in conditional clauses where it retains its modal meaning, that of volition.

You may laugh if you will but I was sure I should see her there. (E. Bronte)

Можете смеяться, если хотите, но я был уверен, что встречу ее там.

The modal verb wilt is used in polite requests.

Will you have a cup of tea?

Will you give me a piece of bread, for I am very hungry? (Ch. Bronte)

N o t e. — The modal verb will should not be confused with the auxiliary will

in American English where there is a marked tendency to use it with all the

persons.

2. Persistence referring to the present or to the future.

“Don’t tell me.” “But I will tell you,” repeated Sikes. (Dickens)

«He говорите мне про это». «А я все равно скажу», — повторил Сайкc.

She begins to act very strangely. She will not speak, she will not eat; finally

she dies. (Maugham)

Она начинает вести себя очень странно. Она не желает говорить, она не

желает есть, наконец, она умирает.

It is also used in speaking about lifeless things when the speaker is annoyed at something and speaks about a thing or a phenomenon of nature as if it possessed a will of its own (there is an element of personification here).

It’s no use trying to open the door, it will not open.

Нечего стараться открыть эту дверь — она все равно не откроется.

Would.

Would was originally the past tense of will in the same way as should was the past tense of shall. But while the latter has acquired new shades of meaning, would has preserved those of will. Thus it expresses volition, persistence referring to the past.

1. Volition.

In this meaning it is mostly used in negative sentences.

She was going away and would not say where she was going. (Dreiser)

Она уезжала и не хотела сказать, куда едет.

2. Persistence.

I asked him not to bang the door, but he would do it.

Я просил его на хлопать дверью, а он все продолжал хлопать.

Several times Eckerman tried to get away, but Goethe would not let him go.

(Maugham)

Несколько раз Эккерман пытался уйти, но Гёте ни за что не отпускал

его.

It is also used in speaking about lifeless things in the same way as will (see § 9), but in this use would is more common than will.

...and that was all he could see, for the sedan doors wouldn’t open and the

blinds wouldn’t pull up. (Dickens)

...и это было все, что ему было видно, ибо двери портшеза никак не

открывались и занавеси никак не поднимались.

Dare.

Dare means ‘to have the courage (or impertinence) to do something’. In the negative it denotes the lack of courage to do something.

“How dare you ask the little Kelveys into the courtyard,” said her cold,

furious voice. (Mansfield)

The verb dare as well as need has some peculiarities which make it different from other modal verbs.

It is used both as a normal verb (taking the auxiliary do in the interrogative and negative forms, ‑s in the third person singular and the to -Infinitive) and as an anomalous verb (without any auxiliary in its interrogative and negative forms, without ‑s in the third person singular and without the particle to before the infinitive which follows it). Dare has two forms — dare for the Present and dared for the Past.

Did he dare to strike me when I was down? (E. Bronte)

He did not dare to meet his uncle. (Kruisinga)

How dare you go out by yourself after the orders I gave you? (Shaw)

You dare address me in that tone! (Shaw)

Sometimes dare takes the auxiliary but is followed by the bare infinitive.

You know you didn’t dare give the order to charge the bridge until you saw

us on the other side. (Shaw) ‘

Dare is mostly used in interrogative and negative sentences. However, we often come across I dare say which has become a stock phrase and acquired a new meaning ‘I suppose’. Dare is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive.

Need.

Need expresses necessity. It is mostly used in negative and interrogative sentences.

You needn’t be in such a fright. Take my arm. (Shaw)

He надо так бояться. Возьмите меня, под руку.

N o t e. — When need is used in the meaning of ‘to be in want of’ it is treated

as a normal verb.

He needs a new pair of shoes.

Need has only one tense form — the Present. In the same way as dare, need is used as a normal and as an anomalous verb; the latter is much more common in colloquial English.

One need to be careful. (Zandvoort)

He did not need to be told twice. (Zandvoort)

Why need he bother us? (Knuslnga)

I am here. You needn’t be afraid. (Greene)

I need hardly say I would do anything in the world to ensure Gwendolen’s

happiness. (Wilde)

Need is used both with the Indefinite and with the Perfect Infinitive.

I suppose I needn’t have made that observation. (Pinero)

Пожалуй, не к чему мне было делать такое замечание.

MOOD

Mood is a grammatical category which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.

In Modern English we distinguish three moods:

(1) The Indicative Mood.

(2) The Imperative Mood.

(3) The Subjunctive Mood.

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