Present Participle

The present participle is the ing -form. You surely know this form:

from progressive / continuous tenses (e. g. Present Progressive) – I am speaking.

as an adjective form – The film is interesting.

as a gerund – He is afraid of flying.

Not the exceptions in spelling when adding 'ing':

Exception	Example
final e dropped (but: ee is not changed)	come – coming (but: agree - agreeing)
final consonant after short, stressed vowel is doubled	sit – sitting
final consonant l after vowel is always doubled (in British English)	travel – travelling
final ie becomes y	lie – lying

The present participle can be used to describe the following verbs:

come, go, sit Example: The girl sat crying on the sofa.

The present participle can also be used after verbs of the senses if we do not want to emphasise that the action was completed. (see Infinitive or Ing-Form)

feel, find, hear, listen to, notice, see, smell, watch Example: Did you see him dancing?

Furthermore, the present participle can be used to shorten or combine active clauses that have the same subject.

Example: She left the house and whistled. – She left the house whistling.

Past Participle

The past participle is the participle that you find in the third column of lists with irregular verbs. You surely know this form:

from perfect tenses (z. B. Present Perfect Simple) – I have spoken.

from passive voice – The letter was written.

as an adjective form – I was bored to death.

For irregular participle forms see third column of irregular verbs. Regular verbs form the past participle by adding ed, however, note the following exceptions in spelling:

Exceptions when adding ed	Example
after a final e, only add d	love – loved
final consonant after a short, stressed vowel or l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled	admit – admitted travel – travelled
final y after a consonant becomes i	hurry – hurried

The past participle can also be used to shorten or combine passive clauses that have the same subject.

Example: The boy was given an apple. He stopped crying. – Given an apple, the boy stopped crying.

Articles

There are only three articles in English: a, an and the.

There are two types of articles indefinite 'a' and ' a n' or definite 'the'.

Indefinite articles - a and an

A and an are the indefinite articles. They refer to something not specifically known to the person you are communicating with.

A and an are used before nouns that introduce something or someone you have not mentioned before:-

A and an are also used when talking about your profession:-

You use a when the noun you are referring to begins with a consonant (b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y or z), for example, "a city", "a factory", and "a hotel".

You use an when the noun you are referring to begins with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u)

Definite Article - the

We use the when you have already mentioned the thing you are talking about.

We use the to talk about geographical points on the globe.

We use the to talk about rivers, oceans and seas

We also use the before certain nouns when we know there is only one of a particular thing.

However if you want to describe a particular instance of these you should use a/an.

The is also used to say that a particular person or thing being mentioned is the best, most famous, etc. In this use, ' the ' is usually given strong pronunciation whether or not it preceeds a vowel:

No article

We usually use no article to talk about things in general:-

You do not use an article when talking about sports.

You do not use an article before uncountable nouns when talking about them generally.

You do not use an article before the names of countries except where they indicate multiple areas or contain the words (state(s), kindom, republic, union). Kingdom, state, republic and union are nouns, so they need an article.

The plural form of nouns

Nouns that end in - ch, -x, -s, -sh add ' -es' to the end of the word.

box - boxes

Most nouns ending in - o preceded by a consonant also form their plurals by adding '- es '. potato - potatoes

However many newly created words and words with a Spanish or Italian origin that end in - o just add an ' s '.

photo - photos | piano - pianos | portico - porticos

Nouns that end in a single 'z', add ' -zes ' to the end of the word.quiz - quizzes

Nouns ending in a consonant + y, drop the y and add ' -ies '.

party - parties | lady - ladies

Most nouns ending in 'is', drop the ' is ' and add ' -es'.

crisis - crises | hypothesis - hypotheses | oasis - oases

Most nouns ending in -f or -fe, drop the f and add ' ves '.

calf - calves | half - halves | wolf - wolves

But this isn't a hard and fast rule:-

belief - beliefs (believes is a verb form)

brief - briefs

chef - chefs

proof - proofs

roof - roofs

cafe - cafes

safe - safes (saves is a verb form)

Irregular Plurals

There are also a lot of common nouns that have irregular plurals.

Most common nouns connected with human beings seem to be irregular.

child - children | person - people | man - men | woman - women

Other irregular common nouns are:-

foot - feet | goose - geese | mouse - mice | tooth - teeth

Some nouns have identical plural and singular forms.

aircraft - aircraft | fish - fish | headquarters - headquarters | sheep - sheep | species - species

In the plural form they still take a plural verb (are / were):-

Uncountable nouns on the other hand have no plural form and take a singular verb (is / was...).

advice

Some nouns (especially those associated with two things) exist only in the plural form and take a plural verb (are / were...).

scissors

trousers

Uncountable nouns are always singular.

The pronouns each, either, neither, another, and all compound words ending in one, body, or thing are always singular.

Pronouns

A pronoun is used in place of a noun or nouns. Common pronouns include he, her, him, I, it, me, she, them, they, us, and we.

Often a pronoun takes the place of a particular noun. This noun is known as the antecedent. A pronoun "refers to," or directs your thoughts toward, its antecedent.

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