Sentence is a predicative unit.

The sentence is produced by the speaker in the process of speech as a concrete, ituationally bound utterance

But the sentence is not the highest unit of language in the hierarchy of levels. Above the proposemic level there is still another one, namely, the level of sentence-groups, "supra-sentential constructions".

this level can be called "supra-proposemic".

The supra-sentential construction is a combination of separate sentences forming a textual unity.

The syntactic process by which sentences are connected into textual unities is analysed under the heading of "cumulation".

In the typed text, the supra-sentential construction commonly coincides with the paragraph

So, there are six levels of language, each identified by its own functional type of segmental units.

7 THE NOTION OF A MORPHEME / TYPES OF MORPHEMES

the morpheme is a smallest meaningful component of the word; it is elementary

is formed by phonemes; is general, ideal

morphemes on the upper level are divided into

root-morphemes (roots) and

affixal morphemes (affixes).

The roots express the concrete, "material" part of the meaning of the word,

while the affixes express the specificational part of the meaning of the word

The roots of notional words are classical lexical morphemes.

The affixal morphemes include prefixes, suffixes, and inflexions

prefixes and suffixes have word-building functions, together with the root they form the stem of the word;

inflexions (grammatical suffixes) express different morphological categories.

The root is obligatory for any word, while affixes are not obligatory

out — a root-word

throughout — a composite word, in which -out serves as one of the roots

outing — a two-morpheme word, in which out is a root, and -ing is a suffix;

outlook, outline, outrage — words, in which out- serves as a prefix;

look-out, knock-out, time-out, — words (nouns), in which -out serves as a suffix.

the abstract complete morphemic model of the common English word is the following: prefix + root + suffix + inflection.

Each word has its morphemic composition.

we can find the morpheme only within the structure of a word.

2 criteria of a classification of a morpheme (traditional)

Positional	Semantic
Takes into account the position of a morpheme within a word	Morphemes contributes into general semantics of a word
Morphemes are represented by Morphs Root morphemes and affixal morphemes
Central morpheme	Prefixes Suffixes Grammatical suffixes (inflections) WB functions

Allo-emic theory – theory of descriptive linguistics – helps identify semantic properties of lingual units

1. differentiates imunits and allounits

general concrete

abstract real

deals with the identification of lingual units with the help of distributional analysis. (how the units are distributed?)

Types of distribution:

Contrastive	Non-contrastive	Complementary
Contrast	No contrast at all	Shows 1 gram meaning through different morphs
Listen ed – listen ing	Learned – learnt	Listen – listening
		Phonological	morphological

Allo-emic theory classifies morphemes distributionaly according to:

Degree of self dependence - free / bound

Formal presentation explicit / implicit

Grammatical alternation additive / replacive

Linear characteristics continuous / discontinuous

1. morpheme is classified on the basis of a degree of self-dependence:

free – capable of making words by themselves (free, root morphemes)

bound – affixal morphemes, never occur in isolation.

(hand ^root/ full ^affix )

2. basis of a formal presentation: whether we can see or not

explicit

implicit (come^explicit [0] ^implicit – come ^explicit s ^explicit)

3. the basis of grammatical alternation:

additive - edited to the stem of the word

replacive - one root is replaced by another root

(drive, drove, driven), (woman – women)

(clock – clock[ s ] – ^additive)

4. basis of linear characteristics:

continuous - uninterrupted

discontinuous – interrupted (have been doing – 1 morpheme (3 constituents))

(She has been writing – ^{discontinuous} this article for a number of years)

NOUN:

The category of gender is expressed in English by the obligatory correlation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the third person.

The category of gender is strictly oppositional.

It is formed by two oppositions

One opposition functions in the whole set of nouns, dividing them into person (human) nouns and non-person (non-human) nouns.

The other opposition functions in the subset of person nouns only, dividing them into masculine nouns and feminine nouns.

As a result of the double oppositional correlation, a specific system of three genders arises, which is misleadingly represented by the

traditional terminology: the neuter gender, the masculine gender, the feminine gender.

The strong member of the upper opposition is the human subclass of nouns

The weak member of the opposition both inanimate and animate non-person nouns. Here belong such nouns as tree, mountain, love,cat, society, crowd, association, bull and cow,

The strong member of the opposition is the feminine subclass of person nouns,

Here belong such nouns as woman, girl, mother, bride

The masculine subclass of person nouns - such words as man, boy, father,

makes up the weak member of the opposition.

A great many person nouns in English are capable of expressing both feminine and masculine person genders by way of the pronominal correlation in question. These are referred to as nouns of the " common gender ". Here belong such words as person, parent, friend, cousin, doctor,

president, etc.

nouns can show the sex of their referents lexically,

boy-friend, girl-friend, washer-man, landlady; he-bear, she-bear; master

, mistress; actor, actress; executor, executrix;

the category of gender is semantic, meaningful

it reflects the actual features of the named objects.

The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the noun to the singular form of the noun. The strong member of this binary opposition is the plural, its productive formal mark being the suffix -(e)s

dog — dogs, clock — clocks, box — boxes. The productive formal mark correlates with the absence of the number suffix in the singular form of the noun

The other, non-productive ways of expressing

the number opposition are vowel interchange

(man — men, woman — women, tooth — teeth,

the archaic suffix -(e)n supported by phonemic interchange

(ox — oxen, child — children,

the correlation of individual singular and plural suffixes in a limited number of borrowed nouns (formula — formulae, phenomenon — phenomena, alumnus — alumni,

In some cases the plural form of the noun is homonymous with the singular form (sheep, deer, fish

there exist plurals and singulars that cannot be fully accounted for by the above ready-made approach.

Lecture 5

the Verb, complexity and categorial specifics

1. the verb: situation and reality

categorial meaning

functional value

forms of WB

classes of verbs

2. notional verbs traditional classification lexical (according to semantics)

types of categorization

verbs combining power – valency

the synt valency

3. verbals

finite and non finite

the verbals paradigm

1. the verb: situation and reality

THE CATEGORY OF FINITUDE

Verbs categorial meaning – process developing in time

Finite (personal form)	Non-finite (impersonal)
Agree with the person and number     Plays a central role in the predication of a sentence, makes up the primary predication	Don’t agree Are very specific Subject is implied   Form additional secondary predication   4 types –   Infinitive – verbal name of process   Gerund – verbal name of process close to N, capable of performing all the possible sentence parts functions   Participle1 and Participle2 – qualifying names of process Functions of V, Adv, adj   APC, P1C and P2C

WB specifics:

1. simple (go, take, try, sing)

2. sound replacive (blood-bleed, food-feed)

3. stress replacive (export – to export)

4. composite (blackmail – to blackmail)

5. expanded (normal – normalize)

Linear characteristics:

--- continuous / discontinuous

--- full nominative value – notional verbs / partial nominative value – semi notional verbs

functional

--- perceptional (seem, look)

--- factual (to become, to grow) --- linking verbs - Linking function

combining power – valency

Obligatory	Optional
V+N Having a complete structure	V+N in the function of the direct object (she wrote a letter of application)
Complementive	Supplementive
Usage of direct object
	Personal	Impersonal

Verbs categories – study!

Smirnitskyj classifications of direct and indirect moods (binary privative opposition)

2 direct 4 indirect – subj 1,2 the suppositional mood and the conditional mood

Verb potential semantics – durative,

verbs - lexical, primary and modal

notional and semi-notional

approaches to classify the notional verbs: LEXICAL - 7 demains

activity (contact,) – denote actions and events; subject role – agent

transitive / intransitive

communication – a subcategory of activity verbs (ask, announce, call, explain)

mental (co gnitive) - range of activities and states (think, know, taste, consider, learn, enjoy)

simple occurance – simple events (become, change, grow)

causative – (allow, help, permit)

aspectual – (begin, continue, start, stop)

of existence and relational – reporting a state (seem, appear)

depends on a meaning can be in both categories

whether commun verbs can be autonomous?

the verb tense aspect voice mood peculiarities

1.expression of grammatical time

· time denotation

· types of time naming

· the gramm expression of verbal time

2. the verb aspective meaning (continuous / non-continuous)

· aspective grammatical change

· the category of development

· the category of retrospective coordination

3. the verbal category of voice

· the opposition “active-passive”

· “medial” voices:

· reflexive

· reciprocal

· middle

4.the category of mood

· oblique mood meaning

· direct mood meaning

· direct moods:

· the indicative

· the imperative

· oblique (indirect moods):

· subjunctive 1

· subjunctive 2

· the suppositional

· the conditional

phrase types and relevance of syntagmatic connection

1. variety of word groupings

· properties of different combinations

· contextual dependence

· contextually self-dependent value

2. properties of word groupings

· equal rank relations

· unequal relations

3. types of connections in groupings

· syndetic / asyndetic

· logically consecutive connections

· inner cumulation

· predicative connection of words

· completive connections (objective, qualifying)

direction of linking - bydirectional and monodirectional phrases

autosemantic potential – self dependent phrases

sinsemantic - non self dependent

the rank of relationship:

equal rank relations

unequal rank relations

sentence as the integral language unit

1. the sentence as the main object of syntax

· basic approaches to the definition

· external – generalization; language – sentence – thought

· functional design; sentence - communicative whole

· internal – complexity; unity of formal and semantic characteristics

· syntactic / predicative/ basic communicative level unit;

· main syntactic form

· traditional classification of the sentence

· declarative

· interrogative

· imperative

· classification of utterances according to Charles Fries

· sentence – a minimum isolated utterance.

· situation utterance:

· alicit action response

· alicit obligatory response

· statements

· sentence vs word

· sentence – utterance as correlatives

· categorial specifics of the sentence

· predication

· modality

· intonation

2. the simple sentence/ semantic classification

· categorial meanings of:

· subject

· predicate

· subject-object relation

3. The composite sentence:

· types of construction:

· parataxis

· hypotaxis

· structural relationship between clauses:

· elaboration

· extension

· enhancement

THE SENTENCE LOGICO-SEMANTIC CHARACTERIZATION

1. the sentence as a polyaspective entity:

· nomination specifics – nomination role of sentence parts

· semantic – semantic

· information – information

· semantic roles (actants):

· agent, patient, experience, beneficient, instrument, participant, result

2. the theory of actual division

· nominative division VS actual division – specifics of the correlation

· V.Mathesius conception of “known and unknown”

· logical analysis of the proposition

· theme and rheme as the main components of the actual – formal means of

· distinction

· the “logical accent” = the rhematic accent

· the actual division as part of syntactic predication

3. communicative sentence types and the theory of actual division

· the declarative sentence actual devision

· the inperative sentence “theme-rheme” specifis

· the interrogative sentence “communicative perspective”

---

Дата добавления: 2015-11-16